Network Adapter Facts

A network adapter (also called a network interface card or NIC) connects a host to the network medium.

 The network adapter is responsible for converting binary data into a format to be sent on the
network medium.
o A transceiver is responsible for converting digital data into digital signals to be sent on the
medium. The type of signal the transceiver sends depends on the type of network. A fiber
optic NIC sends light signals, an Ethernet NIC sends electronic signals on a wire, and a
wireless NIC sends radio signals. To receive signals, the transceiver converts digital
signals from the network to digital data for the PC.
o A modem converts binary data to analog waves (modulation) on the sending end, and
then converts the analog waves back to binary data (demodulation) on the receiving end.
 Some computers, like laptops, come with built-in network adapters. Other computers use NICs
(network interface cards) that plug in to the system's expansion slots or which are external to the
computer and connect through an existing computer port.
 The type of network adapter you choose must match the network architecture you are connecting
to.
 Older network adapters used an external transceiver that matched the media type. While nearly
all current network adapters come with a built-in transceiver type, new devices, such as switches
and routers, use transceiver modules that allow you to modify the media type of a port by
changing the transceiver. Transceiver modules include the following:
o A GBIC (gigabit interface converter) is a larger-sized transceiver that fits in a port slot and
is used for Gigabit media including copper and fiber optic.
o An SFP (small form-factor pluggable) is similar to a GBIC but with a smaller size. An SFP
is sometimes called a mini-GBIC.
o An XFP transceiver is similar in size to an SFP but is used for 10 Gigabit networking.
 Use a media converter to connect a network adapter using one media type to another. For
example, use a media converter to connect a server with a fiber optic Ethernet NIC to a copper
Ethernet cable.
o Media converters work at the Physical layer (Layer 1). Media converters do not read or
modify the MAC address in any way.
o Media converters only convert from one media type to another within the same
architecture (such as Ethernet). A media converter cannot translate between two different
architectures (instead, use a bridge or a router to do this). Converting from one
architecture to another would require modifying the frame contents to modify the Data
Link layer address.
 The MAC address is a unique hexadecimal identifier burned into the ROM of every Ethernet NIC.
o The MAC address is a 12-digit (48-bit) hexadecimal number (each number ranges from
0-9 or A-F).
o The address is often written as 00-B0-D0-06-BC-AC or 00B0.D006.BCAC, although
dashes, periods, and colons can be used to divide the MAC address parts.
o The MAC address is guaranteed unique through design. The first half (first 6 digits) of the
MAC address is assigned to each manufacturer. The manufacturer determines the rest of
the address, assigning a unique value which identifies the host address. A manufacturer
that uses all the addresses in the original assignment can apply for a new MAC address
assignment.

Note: Some network cards allow you to change the MAC address through jumpers, switches, or
software. However, there is little practical reason for doing so.

 Devices use the MAC address to send frames to other devices on the same subnet.
 Before two devices can communicate, they must know the MAC address of the receiving device.
  Hosts use the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to discover the MAC address of a device from
its IP address. To find the MAC address of the recipient:

1. The sending device sends out a broadcast frame:

 The destination MAC address is all F's (FFFF:FFFF:FFFF).
 The sending MAC address is its own MAC address.
 The destination IP address is the known IP address of the destination host.
 The sending IP address is its own IP address.
2. All hosts on the subnet process the broadcast frame, looking at the destination IP
address.
3. If the destination IP address matches its own address, the host responds with a frame
that includes its own MAC address as the sending MAC address.
4. The original sender then reads the MAC address from the frame and associates the IP
address with the MAC address, saving it in cache.

Once the sender knows the MAC address of the receiver, it sends data in frames addressed to
the destination device.

 Hosts use the Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) to find the IP address of a host with
a known MAC address.
 Frames include a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) which is used to detect frames that have
been corrupted during transmission.
 Network adapters are Layer 1 devices because they send and receive signals on the network
medium. They are also Layer 2 devices because they must follow the rules for media access, and
because they read the physical address in a frame.

Network Connection Device Facts

The following table lists several common connection devices used within a LAN.

Device Description
A hub is the central connecting point of a physical star, logical bus topology. Hubs manage
communication among hosts using the following method:

1. A host sends a frame to another host through the hub.

2. The hub duplicates the frame and sends it to every host connected to the hub.
Hub
3. The host to which the frame is addressed accepts the frame. Every other host
ignores the frame.

Hubs are Layer 1 devices; they simply repeat incoming frames without examining the MAC
address in the frame.
Bridge A bridge is a device that connects two (or more) media segments on the same subnet, and
filters traffic between both segments based on the MAC address in the frame. A bridge
builds a database based on MAC addresses to make forwarding decisions.

 The process begins by examining the source MAC address of an incoming frame. If
the source address is not in the forwarding database, an entry for the address is
made in the database associating the MAC address with the media segment.
 The destination address is then examined.
o If the destination address is not in the database, the frame is sent out on all
segments except for the one on which it was received.
o If the destination address is in the database, the frame is forwarded to the
appropriate segment if the segment is different than the one on which it was
 received.
o Broadcast frames are forwarded to all segments except the one on which
they were received.

You should be aware of the following regarding bridges:

 Bridges are used to separate one part of the subnet from another. This keeps the
network from wasting bandwidth by eliminating unnecessary traffic between
segments.
 All segments connected to a bridge are on the same subnet, and share a common
subnet address.
 Bridges can also connect two segments that use a different network architecture.
For example, a bridge can connect a segment using Ethernet with a segment using
802.11 wireless.
 Bridges operate at the OSI Layer 2; they read the MAC address contained in a
frame to make forwarding decisions.
 Frame forwarding happens independently of the upper-layer protocols (such as
TCP/IP).

A switch is a multiport bridge that performs filtering based on MAC addresses in addition to
providing additional features not found in a bridge.

 While most bridges can only process a single frame at a time, switches can process
multiple frames simultaneously.
Switch  Switches offer guaranteed bandwidth to each switch port.
 Switches can make additional forwarding decisions based on the MAC address. For
example, a switch can be configured to only accept frames from specific MAC
addresses.
 Like bridges, switches operate at Layer 2.

A wireless access point (AP) is a hub for a wireless network, with hosts using radio waves
instead of wires for communications.

 A wireless access point is like a hub in that any message sent to any wireless host
connected to the access point can be received by all other wireless hosts.
Wireless  A wireless access point is a Layer 2 device; it can read the Data Link layer address
Access Point in a frame.
(AP)  A wireless access point is often configured as a bridge, connecting a wireless
segment to a wired segment. Both wireless and wired hosts are on the same
subnet.
 Many wireless access points are combination devices that include a wired hub or
switch or even a router.

Internetwork Device Facts

Devices such as hubs, switches, and bridges connect multiple devices to the same network segment.
Internetwork devices connect multiple networks or subnets together, and enable communication between
hosts on different types of networks. The following table lists several common internetworking devices.

Device Description
 A router is a device that connects two or more network segments or subnets.

 Each subnet has a unique, logical network address.

 Routers can be used to connect subnets within a single LAN, or they can be used as
gateways to connect multiple LANs together.
Router  Routers can be used to connect networks with different architectures (such as connect
an Ethernet network to a token ring network).

Routers forward packets to other networks by maintaining information about other networks in a
database called a routing table. The routing table typically contains the address of all known
networks and the next router in the path used to reach the destination network.
A firewall is a router with additional security features. Firewalls can be programmed with
security rules to restrict the flow of traffic between networks.

 A firewall can control the type of traffic allowed in to a network and the type of traffic
Firewall
allowed out of a network.
 Rules set up on the firewall determine the types of permitted and prohibited traffic.
 A firewall can be either hardware devices or software installed onto operating systems.

A Layer 3 switch is a switch that is capable of reading Layer 3 (network) addresses and making
Layer 3 switching decisions based on the network address to switch or route packets between subnets.
switch A Layer 3 switch often provides better performance than a router, but does not support as many
features as a router.

Note: Each of the devices listed in this table operate at the Network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
Some firewalls are also capable of operating at higher layers, making filtering decisions based upon
information found in the upper OSI model layers.

Routers receive packets, read their headers to find addressing information, and send them on to their
correct destination on the network or Internet. To send a message from one host to another on a different
network, the following process is used:

1. The sending host prepares a packet to be sent. It uses its own IP address for the source Network
layer address, and the IP address of the final receiving device as the destination Network layer
address.
2. The sending host creates a frame by adding its own MAC address as the source Physical layer
address. For the destination Physical layer address, it uses the MAC address of the default
gateway router.
3. The sending host transmits the frame.
4. The next hop router reads the destination MAC address in the frame. Because the frame is
addressed to that router, it processes the frame.
5. The router strips off the frame header and examines the packet destination address. It uses the
routing table to identify the next hop router in the path.
6. The router repackages the packet into a new frame. It uses its own MAC address as the source
Physical layer address, and the MAC address of the next hop router for the destination Physical
layer address.
7. The router transmits the frame.
8. The next hop router repeats steps 4 through 7 as necessary, until the frame arrives at the last
router in the path.
9. The last router in the path receives the frame and checks the destination IP address contained in
the packet.
 10. Because the destination device is on a directly connected network, the router creates a frame
using its own MAC address as the source address, and the MAC address of the destination
device as the destination physical address.
11. The router transmits the frame.
12. The destination device receives the frame. Inside the packet it finds the destination address
matching its own IP address, with the source IP address being that of the original sending device.

Be aware of the following:

 Both Data Link physical addresses and Network logical addresses are used to send packets
between hosts on different subnets.
 IP (Network layer) addresses are contained in the IP header; MAC (Data Link) addresses are
contained in the Ethernet frame header.
 A router uses the logical network address specified at the Network layer to forward messages to
the appropriate network segment.
 Data Link addresses in the packet change as the packet is delivered from hop to hop. At any
point in the process, the Data Link destination address indicates the physical address of the next
hop on the route. The Data Link source address is the physical address of the device sending the
frame.
 Network addresses remain constant as the packet is delivered from hop to hop. The Network
addresses indicate the logical address of the original sending device and the address of the final
destination device.