MODULE 2: MODELS & THEORIES and MODES OF COMMUNICATION

MODULE 2
LESSON 1: MODELS AND THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the various communication models and how they help in expressing one’s communicative intent;
2. Distinguish the differences between and among the communication models; and
3. Use these communication models appropriately depending on the context of communication situation.

Introduction

Many suggest that there is no such thing as a successful body of communication theory, but that those who
study communication have been relatively more successful in generating models of communication. So before
we jump into discussing communication theories, let’s examine the fundamental models of communication.

According to the seminal 1952 article by Karl Deutsch (Links to an external site.), On Communication Models
in the Social Sciences, a model is "a structure of symbols and operating rules which is supposed to match a set
of relevant points in an existing structure or process."(Public Opin Q (1952) 16 (3): 356-380) In other words, it
is a simplified representation or template of a process that can be used to help understand the nature of
communication in a social setting. Such models are not necessarily one-to-one maps of the real world, but they
are successful only insofar as they accurately represent the most important elements of the real world, and the
dynamics of their relationship to one another.

Deutsch suggests that a model should provide four functions:

1. It should organize a complex system (while being as general as possible).
2. It should provide a heuristic function (enable a person to discover or learn something for themselves).
3. It should be as original as possible; they should not be obvious enough that they fail to shed light on the
existing system.
4. It should also provide some form of measurement of the system that will work analogously within the model
and within the actual system being observed.

Models are tools of inquiry in a way that theories may not be. By representing the system being
observed, they provide a way of working through the problems of a "real world" system in a more abstract way.
As such, they lend themselves to the eventual construction of theory, though it may be that theory of the sort
found in the natural sciences is something that cannot be achieved in the social sciences. Unfortunately, while
models provide the "what" and the "how, " they are not as suited to explaining "why, " and therefore are rarely
as satisfying as strong theory. The communication models help us to build theories of communication. As you
read in this lecture, because there are so many different theories in communication, scholars have constructed
different ways of categorizing them to aid in understanding the theories better. There are three main Models
used in the study of communication.

3 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of creating, interpreting, and negotiating meaning.

Communication can be verbal, nonverbal, or textual. It can be aural, visual, or even physical. Although
communication occurs in a variety of different ways, it is always a learned behaviour. While most human
beings are born with the physical abilities to speak, to hear, to see, and so on, people must learn to communicate
through codes, symbols, and systems of language. In this way, communication is a collective practice in which
people use symbols to generate and interpret meaning.

In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have developed several models. The three
most well-known models for communication are Linear, Interactional, and Transactional. As West & Turner
(2007) explain, each model sheds light on the development of communication, but emphasizes different parts of
the communication process. The models provide pictures, or visual representations, of complex interactions.
They are useful because they simplify the basic structure of communication and can help us to understand that
structure not just verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify the various elements of
communication and serve as a kind of map to show how different parts of the communication process are
interrelated.

1. LINEAR MODELS

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Originally developed by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, this model describes communication as a linear process.
(See Figure 1.1.) This model describes how a sender, or speaker, transmits a message to a receiver, or listener.
More specifically, the sender is the source of the message. A message may consist of the sounds, words, or
behaviours in a communication interaction. The message itself is transmitted through a channel, the pathway or
route for communication, to a receiver, who is the target or recipient of the message. There may be obstacles in
the communication process, or noise. Noise refers to any interference in the channel or distortion of the
message. This is a fairly simple model in which a message is simply passed from sender to receiver.

FIGURE 1.1 SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL

While the linear model was highly influential during the mid-20th century, this model is perhaps too simple. Its
limitations are easy to see if you pause to think about the beliefs about communication, or assumptions, made in
this model. First, this model assumes that communication only goes in one direction. Here, a person can be a
sender or receiver, but not both. This is problematic because communication in action is more dynamic than the
linear model suggests. In action, communication involves a give and take between senders and receivers in
which listeners are not simply passive receptacles for a sender’s message. This model is also limited because it
provides only one channel for only one message. Finally, it implies that messages themselves are clear-cut with
a distinct beginning and a distinct end. However, communication is rarely, if ever, as neat and tidy as a linear
model would suggest.

ARISTOTLE'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle’s Model of Communication is a unique communication tool proposed before 300 b.c by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle. It is a linear model that puts a greater onus on public speaking instead of interpersonal
communication that other models do.

Aristotle’s Model of Communication is the first model of communication and is considered very simple and
straightforward. It is shown in a diagram form and in current times is used while preparing speeches, lectures,
and seminars. Aristotle’s model of communication is mainly a speaker centered model where the speaker and
speech are very important. It is broadly divided into 5 primary elements Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience,
and Effect. The speaker’s role to deliver a speech is considered as the first element of the 5 primary elements. In
this model, the speaker gives the speech whereas the target audience is passively influenced.
 Three Elements of Aristotle’s Model of Communication

FIGURE 1.2: 3 COMPONENT OF ARISTOTLE'S MODEL

Aristotle’s model of communication is mainly categorized into three components that are related to each other
and are considered a must to become a good communicator. These elements of communication are as follows:

Ethos
Ethos is the characteristic that defines the credibility of the speaker in a communication model. It is a fact that
without credibility the words of the speaker will hold no power over its audience and thus fail to impress and
persuade them. Remember it is the position and expertise in a specific field that gives the speaker credibility,
authority, and power. The speaker plays an important role and must maintain eye contact so that his speech is
widely accepted by the target audience. This is referred to as Ethos and is one of the important elements of
Aristotle’s Model of Communication.

Let’s explain Ethos in the Aristotle Model of Communication with an example. Suppose two politicians Anand
and Bilal are contesting from the same seat. Anand has the reputation of working diligently for the people
whereas the
other person Bilal is known for his corrupt nature. In such a scenario people will most probably go to hear the
speech of the good politician and not the corrupt one. This is because it is Ethos that is showcasing the
credibility of the speaker or the writer. Remember it is easy to damage the Ethos of a person in the Aristotle
Model of Communication. In the above example, Bilal was not considered a corrupt politician from the
beginning but when he became involved in a scandal people started thinking of him in a bad light.

Pathos
When there is an emotional bond it becomes easy to make a connection. Pathos in the communication model
helps the speaker to connect with the audience through various emotions like anger, sadness, happiness,
confidence, etc. Profit and non-profit organizations, politicians, etc. capitalize on Pathos to address and connect
with the emotion of the target audience. In the abovementioned scenario, politician Anand will take the help of
Pathos and refer to his good deeds to create a connection with his audience.

Logos
Logos is considered an important element of Aristotle’s communication model that signifies logic. The
audience will not only be influenced by the speech but also the logic behind it. The speaker has to take the help
of Logos in Aristotle’s communication model and present statistics and facts so that the audience can believe
and ultimately relate with him. Persuasion will work only to a certain degree but when it is backed by rational
thoughts and factual information then the combination is awesome. In the above-mentioned example, if the
politician Anand highlights his good deeds with facts and figures, for instance, the number of hospitals or
schools he has helped to build then his chance of connecting with the audience will automatically rise.
 Examples of Aristotle's Communication

FIGURE 1.3: EXAMPLE OF ARISTOTLE'S MODEL OFF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle’s Model of Communication has played an important role in oral communication and mass
communication. It can be explained with the help of the following example.

Suppose two countries were at war with each other. They both had equal resources and soldiers and still, one
country was able to gain victory over the other. An important reason for this will be given to the interpersonal
communication and inspirational speech to the audience given by the leader. He used all three elements of
Aristotle’s Model of Communication Ethos, Pathos, and Logos to inspire the feeling of patriotism and thus
could influence his army with logic, emotional connection, and credibility. The army believed him because of
his credible nature and could relate to his sincerity because of emotional connection and facts. This gave the
soldiers the necessary boost to handle the situation with more valor, mental strength, and determination. In this
example of Aristotle’s Model of Communication the 5 primary elements speaker, speech, occasion, audience,
and effect are used.

Speaker – The Leader

Speech – About war and victory
Occasion – Battlefield
Audience – Soldiers and other army personnel
Effect – Defeat enemy and gain victory

There are several real-life examples where leaders have taken the help of Aristotle’s communication model to
inspire and influence their target audience. King Alexander used his public speaking skills and gave a rousing
speech to his soldiers when they refused to cross the River Indus and march towards the enemy camp. Adolf,
Hitler is considered one of the most influential orators of his time as he could easily manipulate his audience
through inspiring words. Other leaders with some of the greatest public speaking skills are George Washington
and Barrack Obama.

LASSWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

Lasswell’s communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in
1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear model or one way model of
communication) is regarded as one the most influential communication models.
 FIGURE 1.4: LASSWELL'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Lasswell’s communication model has 5 components which is used as an analysis tool for evaluating the
communication process and components. The components are the questions to be asked to get the answers and
keep communication going.

Components Meaning Analysis Components Meaning Analysis Components Meaning Analysis

Who the communicator or sender or Control Analysis
source of message
Says What the content of the message Content Analysis
In Which Channel the medium or media Media Analysis
To Whom the receiver of the message or Audience Analysis
an audience
With What Effect the feedback of the receiver to Effect Analysis
the sender

Explanation of different Components of Laswell's Model

• Control analysis helps the sender to have all the power.

• Content analysis is associated to stereotyping and representation of different groups politically. It is also
related to the purpose or the ulterior motives of the message.
• Media analysis represents which medium should be used to exercise maximum power against the
receivers.
• Audience analysis shows who are the target population to be manipulated or brainwashed.
• Effect analysis is done before the process starts. It is used to predict the effect of message over the target
population to be exploited.

Explanation of Laswell's Communication Model

Though Lasswell’s model was developed to analyze mass communication, this model is used for interpersonal
communication or group communication to be disseminated message to various groups in various situations.

Lasswell’s model was developed to study the media propaganda of countries and businesses at that time. Only
rich people used to have communication mediums such as televisions and radios back them. It was made to
show the mass media culture.
 FIGURE 1.5 LASSWELL'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Lasswell also brought the concept of Effective Communication Process. He talked about the relation between
presentation of facts and how it generates different effects. The use of the concept of effect makes Lasswell’s
model non-linear unlike its name. It’s because effect can also be taken as feedback.

Though, generally, the component of effect was made to be more about outcome of the message, the model is
applied in different media and fields despite being developed specifically for mass communication.

This model is similar to the communication model proposed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. Their
model is more graphical than Lasswell’s. George Gerbner who is the founder of the cultivation theory,
expanded Lasswell’s model and included the concept of reaction of the receiver.

Disadvantages and Criticisms of Lasswell’s Model

The major criticism of Lasswell’s Model is that it does not include feedback and it ignores the possibility of
noise. Without feedback, a communication process cannot be fruitful. Lasswell’s model is very linear and does
not consider barriers in the communication process.

The model is also criticized for being very general and only including very traditional topics. The model is very
simplistic. The model is said to be propaganda based as it is more focused on the resulting outcome and
generally used for media persuasion.

2. INTERACTIONAL MODELS
In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow two channels in which
communication and feedback flow between sender and receiver. Feedback is simply a response that a receiver
gives to a sender. (See Figure 1.2.) Feedback can be verbal (i.e. “yes”) or nonverbal (i.e. a nod or smile). Most
importantly, feedback indicates comprehension. It can help senders know if their message was received and
understood. By focusing on flow and feedback, interactional models view communication as an ongoing
process.

FIGURE 1.6 INTERACTIONAL/INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers to how environment,
experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender constructs a message. Keep in mind that
each person brings a unique field of experience to an interaction. Likewise, each communication interaction is
unique. While the interactional model is more dynamic than the linear model, it still contains some limitations.
For instance, this model implies that while people can be both senders and receivers, they cannot do so
simultaneously. In lived communication, roles are not quite so clear-cut and in fact are much more fluid.
Schramm’s Model of Communication

What is the Schramm Communication Model?

The Schramm Communication Model is a cyclical communication model containing all basic principles of
communication. The Schramm Communication Model offers a classic approach to and explanation of
communication. It can be used to determine how communication between two people works when they’re
exchanging information, ideas, or attitudes.
The cyclical communication model is based on the theory and belief that communication is a two-way street.
This means there’s at least a sender and a recipient. The model contains at least one other element as well; the
message itself. Usually communication takes places along the traditional path with a wasteful recipient and
sender.

The recipient and sender can also be one and the same. This is called intra-personal communication. The former
is called interpersonal communication. Where several other models and theories about communication are linear
in nature, the Schramm Communication Model is circular. This means at least two parties are required to send
and receive a message. Both the sender and the recipient have to encode and decode the message to interpret the
message correctly.

Wilbur Schramm published the circular communication model in 1954, several years after Lasswell’s
communication model was published.

Schramm wrote and spoke about the communication model—based on the model by Charles Egerton Osgood—
in his book ‘The Process and Effects of Mass Communication’. He later made some changes, including
introducing the field of experience, or commonality. This refers to what is mutually understood between the
recipient and the sender. A physics professor can teach mathematical principles to a class of psychology
students, but it won’t be easy as the students don’t share a field of experience that would have made it easier to
understand the message.

Three Elements
According to the Schramm Communication Model, communication is circular and the sender and recipient of
the message can be the same person. A message is encrypted and passed on to the same person or to a different
person. It is up to the recipient to decrypt the message, interpret it, and then encode it again before sending the
message to a new recipient (circular). There is no fourth element, such as the in Berlo’s SMCR communication
model.

Source (Encoder)
The source of the message is the sender; the party who sent the message. The source has to be clear when
sending the message and has to be able to show why it is important that the recipient reads it. This is why the
sender of a message has to make sure that the information he is providing is useful, relevant, and accurate.

In order to ensure that the recipient can properly read the message, it has to be encoded. This means it is
necessary for the recipient to know the sender. The success of the attempt at communication will depend on the
ability to bring across the information in a simple but clear way. The way in which the message is encoded is
influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills.

Recipient (Decoder)
The recipient of a message is the person or group to whom the message has been sent. Whether the recipient is
able to decode the message depends on a number of factors. For instance, how much does the individual know
about the topic of the message, but also how open are they for a message and do they trust the source. The
interpretations of the recipient are influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes,
experiences, and skills as well.

Decoding a message is a psychological process. After the message has been received, the stimulus is
immediately sent to the brain for interpretation. This is where the message is given meaning, if at all. This
processing phase is also called decoding. Communication is successful when the recipient correctly interprets
the message from the source.

Message
In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a message is defined as information. This information is
communicated through words or other characters and symbols. A message, either verbal or non-verbal, is the
content of the communication process and plays an important role in the Schramm Communication Model.

A message may contain verbal content, such as speech, sign language, emails, WhatsApp messages, or phone
calls. A message can also consist of non-verbal content, such as behaviour, gestures, body language, eye
contact, physical contact, timing, and even artefacts.

Feedback and Organisations

Although it’s not clearly indicated in the Schramm Communication Model, recipients play an important role
throughout the communication process. They are not only supposed to absorb the message, but they also receive
the message and respond to it. The reply from the recipient to the sender’s message is called feedback.
Feedback can be both verbal and non-verbal. Sometimes it’s a verbal response, sometimes it’s just a sigh or a
nod. Feedback is often expressed in writing, an email for instance.

Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the audience has received the message. This enables the sender to
improve the effectiveness of the way messages are composed and sent. If the audience doesn’t understand the
message, the source of the message can refine it based on the feedback.

Westley and Maclean's Model of Communication

Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm
S. MacLean Jr. (1913-2001) in 1957. This model was an adaptation from Newcomb’s model of communication,
which talked about co-orientation for simultaneous orientation in a two way communication. It also consisted of
some concepts from Lewin’s model. Unlike Dance’s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that
communication does not begin when one person starts speaking, but it does when a person responds to
something from his/her surroundings. The person must first receive message from the environment and then,
he/she responds according to his/her object of orientation.

The Westley and MacLean’s model can be applied in two contexts: interpersonal and mass communication, the
point of difference being the feedback. Feedback is direct and fast in interpersonal communication and indirect
and slow in mass communication. The model also differentiates message as purposive and non-purposive.
Components of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication
The major components in the communication process for the model are:
• Source (A) – Source is the message creator and sender.
• Environment (X) – Environment is the physical and psychological situation where the message is being
created and sent.
• Sensory experience (X1…) – Sensory experience is the first thing that the source sees by which the
source gets the idea for the formation of the message.
• Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) – Objects of orientation is the person’s social and cultural reality that
has formed from his/her past experiences and teachings.
• Message Interpretation or Coding (X’) – Message is interpreted with the objects of orientation of the
receiver of the message.
• Receiver (B) – The person who gets the message sent by the source and the person who interprets
according to his/her objects of orientation.
• Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) – The views and ideas of the receiver or his/her social reality is
his/her object of orientation. That is how the receiver interprets the message.
• Feedback (f) – The receiver forms another message after interpreting the message and sends it back to
the sender. It is known as feedback.
• Gatekeeper (C) – Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The gatekeeper is the editor who
filters the message as per the needs of the audience and media institution.
• Opinion Leader – Opinion leaders are well known and recognized people who can influence public
opinions.

Concepts of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The process of communication in Westley and MacLean’s model of communication starts when the source
creates a message from his/her environment. The communicator acts and creates the message as a response to
the sensory experience with his/her own objects of orientation.

Then, the response is coded after interpreting the environmental response. The coded message is transmitted to
a second respondent who interprets the message differently according to his/her objects of orientation and
provide feedback to the sender.

Gatekeeper and opinion leader are the parts of communication process in mass communication. They are the
editors, proofreaders, etc. who choose which message should be published and what effect will it have on the
audience. Filter of the message is dependent on many factors.

Gatekeeping is done in these levels:

1. Individual level: A person’s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes, dislikes, etc.
2. Routine practice level: Pre-established set of rules and practices for a particular type of work to be done
3. Communication organizations: The policies of the organization that is publishing the work
4. Social institutions: The social systems by which the message is formed
5. Societies: Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms, etc.

Example of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

A person ‘A’ is going to a meeting. Thunderstorms ‘X1’ and heavy rains ‘X2’ start. The roads ‘X3’ are all
blocked. ‘A’ will have to convey the message to the people who are conducting the meeting that he/she will not
be reaching on time. ‘A’ can inform all others through phone.

Here, the message is conceived from the environmental message through the person’s sensory experience. The
object of orientation of the person makes him call others because he thinks that reaching late is impolite. Sender
‘A’ creates the message as a courteous request.

The message is coded in a language form and is sent to the receiver ‘B’. ‘B’ interprets according to his/her own
object of orientation like the receiver can still find reaching late to a meeting rude. The feedback is given
accordingly.
Similarly, in mass communication, ‘A’ sends a message to ‘C’ who is the editor. ‘C’ acts as a gatekeeper and
publishes the news after proper editing. There might be readers’ ‘B’ replies to which are in the form of letters or
directly face to face. The process of letter reaching the writer takes a long time whereas direct review reaches
fast.
In a website, there are many writers. They write and send the articles to get them published. But the editor
chooses the articles that are relevant. The comment box is the place where the audience can give feedback.

Here,
1. X1 is any article
2. X2 is the audience comments
3. X3 is the website
4. f is feedback
5. A is writers
6. B is the audience
7. C is the gatekeeper or the editor
So,
• there is a feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Editor (C) after sending the article for
publishing, which is known as “fBC”.
• There is a feedback loop between Editor (C) and Writer (A) giving response to the writers, which is
known as “fCA”.
• There is another feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Writers (A) in the comments, which is
known as “fBA”.

The message received from the environment can be accidental or abrupt, so might not be intentional. So, the
signals can be received anytime and message is formed anytime.

Advantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

• There is the concept of feedback.
• As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves the message formation.
• Social and other factors are included in objects of orientation.
• The model can be applied to interpersonal, group communication as well as mass communication.
• The model is very descriptive.

Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

• There are many variables even for simple communication which makes the model very complicated.
• The model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication which involves multiple
messages and complicated messages.
• The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the receiver as there can be noise.
The model does not account for noise in communication.

3. TRANSACTIONAL MODELS

The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature of this model is the move
from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people as communicators. This implies that
communication is achieved as people both send and receive messages. (See Figure 1.3.) Fundamentally, this
model views communication as a transaction. In other words, communication is a cooperative action in which
communicators co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction. Unlike the linear model in
which meaning is sent from one person to another, also unlike the interactional model in which understanding is
achieved through feedback, people create shared meaning in a more dynamic process in the transactional model.

FIGURE 1.6 INTERACTIONAL/INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

This model also places more emphasis on the field of experience. While each communicator has a unique field
of experience, they must also inhabit a shared field of experience. In other words, communicators must share at
least some degree of overlap in culture, language, or environment if people are to communicate at all. This
model also recognizes that messages will influence the responses, or subsequent messages, produced in the
communication interaction.

Barlund’s Model of Communication

Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic interpersonal
communication which articulates that sending and receiving of messages happens simultaneously between
people which is popularly known as Barlund’s Transactional Model of Communication.

The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists as General Transactional Model. The
model shifted from the trend of linear model to dynamic and two way communication model.

Concepts of Barlund's Transactional Model of Communication

Barnlund’s Transactional Model is a multi-layered

feedback system.

This is a continuous process where sender and receiver

interchange their places and both are equally important.
The message passing takes place with a constant feedback
being provided from both parties. A feedback for one is
the message for the other.

Components of Barlund’s Model

Cues refer to the signs for doing something. As per Barnlund there are: public cues, private cues and behavioral
cues. In the model diagram shown above, spiral lines gives graphic representation to the assumptions like public
cues and private cues.

• Public cues (Cpu) are physical, environmental or artificial and natural or man-made.
• Private cues (Cpr) are also known as private objects of orientation which include senses of a person.
Both these cues can be verbal as well as non-verbal. Another set of cues are behavioral cues.
• Behavioral cues can be verbal (Cbehv) as well as non-verbal (Cbehnv).

The arrows and their directions show that the message is intentionally sent and actively taken where the receiver
plays a key role of giving feedback. Arrows also show the process of production of technical encoding,
interpretation and decoding

• The jagged lines show that the availability of cues can be unlimited and are denoted as VVVV. The
valence signs, +,0 and – are also attached to these types of cues which illustrates the
amount/degree/strength of attractiveness of the cues in the message.

• Speech act refers to particular instance of communication in the model. Filters are the realities of people
engaged in communication. Here the senders’ and receivers’ personal filters might differ according to
cultures, traditions, content of the message, etc.
• Noise is the problem that arises in communication flow and disturbs the message flow.

Advantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

• The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver.
• Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise and feedback.
• Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.

Disadvantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

• Barnlund’s model is very complex.
• Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other. So they must each possess a
similar “code book”. (The concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but understood.)

Dance’s Helical Model of Communication

“If you’re born today, you’ve limited expressions”- Frank Dance

Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967, known as Helical Model of
Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since birth to existence or existing moment.
Helical model gives geometrical testimony of communication. The model is linear as well as circular combined
and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.

Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where continuousness of the communication
process and relational interactions are very important.
Communication is taken as a dynamic process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as
our experience and vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the communication progresses. The same
effect can be seen with communication of humans, where you know nothing about a person at first and the
knowledge grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all the activities of the person, from the
past and present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes past behavior and experiences.
Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior and grows upward in a new way. It always depends on the
lowest level to form the message. Thus, the communicative relationship reaches to the next level in which
people share more information. Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always
growing and accumulative.

Example of Helical Model of Communication

A child crying at birth signifies the communication of the child to its parents that he/she is alive. After some
years, the child cries whenever the child needs anything like food or attention. He/she learns words and starts
communicating with words.

The child learns specific languages and communicates with the people who know the language that he/she
knows. Communication becomes more complex as the child grows into adult and to the existing moment. The
adult uses the same pronunciations and use of words or facial expressions that he/she learned when he/she was a
child. Communication is directly dependent on his/her past behavior
as a child but can also modify as the person grows.

In this example, communication evolves with the child crying. This is where the helix is small at the bottom.
And he continues communication, the helix gradually grows. When the communication becomes more complex,
the spiral grows wider. From then on, it grows steadily as his life goes on.

Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

• The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes communication process to be
two way.
• The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

• The model is taken as more simple than it should be.
• Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.
• It is not testable because it is abstract.
• It is not represent in a systematic and orderly way.
• Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
• Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be breaks in situations as well as
events can be meaningless, forced or unproductive.
• The purpose of communication is not always growth.

Summary

• Linear models – only looks at one-way communication.

• Interactive models – looks at two-way communication.
• Transactional models – looks at two-way communication where the message gets more complex as the
communication event (e.g. conversation) progresses.
 # Model of Type of Brief Description
Communication Model
Aristotle argues that we should look
at five elements of a communication
1 Aristotle’s Model Linear event to analyze how best to
communicate: speaker, speech,
occasion, target audience and effect.
Lasswell’s model is a basic
framework
for analyzing one-way
2 Lasswell’s Model Linear communication
by asking five questions: Who, said
what, through which channel, to
whom, with what effects?
The Shannon-Weaver model is the
first
Shannon-Weaver Linear to highlight the role of ‘noise’ in
3
Model communication, which can disrupt or
alter a message between sender and
receiver.
Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains
Berlo’s S-M-C-R Linear communication in four steps:
4
Model Source,
Message, Channel, and Receiver.
The Schramm’s model looks at
reciprocal communication, showing
5 Schramm’s Model Interactive how we have to encode, decode, and
interpret information in real-time
during a conversation.
The Westley and Maclean model
Westley and Maclean shows that our communication is
6 Interactive
Model influenced by environmental,
cultural and personal factors.
Barnlund’s Transactional Model of
Barnlund’s Communication highlights the role
7 Transactional
Transactional Model of private and public cues that
impact our messages.
Dance’s Helical Model sees
communication as a circular process
Dance’s Helical
8 Transactional that gets more and more complex as
Model
communication occurs, which can be
represented by a helical spiral.

MODELS AND THEORIES AND MODES OF COMMUNICATION

Modes of Communication
Learning Outcomes:

After the discussion, the students should be able to:

1. Show the importance of face-to-face, audio, virtual, text-based, and other forms of communication
particularly in targeting different types of audiences in local and global settings;

Introduction
Communication mode refers to the channel through which one expresses his/her communicative intent. It is the
medium through which one conveys his/her thoughts. Views or feelings can be communicated through face-to-
face interaction, video, or audio. The mode may also be text-based.
Face-to-face Interaction
It is the informal or casual conversation between two or more people. People engage in social conversations to
establish relationships or maintain them. It is one way of gaining new acquaintances or friends. How to speak,
what to speak, when to speak, and to whom one is speaking are all important considerations in building
relationships.

When do you initiate conversations? Faced with a group of new people who you do not know in a social
gathering, you should be able to begin a conversation, you will be able to test the saying: “First impressions
last”. In this case, depending on the kind of impression you leave to your audience, you create either a positive
or a negative image of yourself. One advantage of face-to-face interaction is that aside from directly hearing the
message being conveyed, you are able to note visual cues through facial expressions, gestures, movements, or
even objects or realia from the person/s you are communicating with.

“Be brave enough to start a conversation that matters” Dau Voire

This simply means that even if the people surrounding you in a social event are strangers to you, you need to be
confident enough to meet new faces and initiate an interesting conversation. But what kind of topics matter to
strangers you are meeting for the first time?
In a social gathering like a wedding, for instance, you do not dwell on topics that are neverending in nature.
You do not discuss politics and religion as these are sensitive issues that may impinge on one’s beliefs and
practices.

“All social change begins with a conversation”, Margaret J. Wheatly

If one single and simple conversation blossoms into a deeper contact. Eventually, you and your newfound friend
may find yourselves enjoying each other’s company, sharing the same interests and deciding to work on some
significant projects. Later on, all of these will result in changes that yield profound social consequences.

“Meaning is made in conversation, reality is created in communication, and knowledge is generated through
social interaction…Language is the vehicle through which we created our under-standing of the world.”

Video
Web cameras are used so two or more people who cannot interact face-to-face can communicate. If there are no
technical glitches encountered, this could be a very effective mode of communication especially for people
separated by distance. Some applications that allow video calls are: Skype, Viber, WhatsApp, Apple FaceTime,
and Facebook Messenger, among others. In more formal settings, people can also engage in video confer-
encing. While this is a convenient communication mode for people who want to reach out to each other despite
distance, a disadvantage is the time zone difference between countries. In this case, one of them should make
necessary adjustments to pave the way for a successful communication.

Audio
Means transmitted sound. In this mode of communication, only the voice of the speaker is heard and not being
able to see the body language of the person you are talking to. Audio communication is quite difficult especially
if listening to people with different accents.

Text-based communication
Such as email, facsimile, text messaging, and instant messaging. Social networking sites such as Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram like-wise offer text-based interaction. While text based communication mode does not
originally provide video and audio benefits, it has a wider reach and can disseminate information to a bigger
audience quickly.
MODULE 2
LESSON 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Major Forms of Communication

Learning Outcomes:
After the discussion, the students should be able to:
Show the importance of face-to-face, audio, virtual, text-based, and other forms of communication particularly
in targeting different types of audiences in local and global settings;

Introduction
Communication means transferring messages from one to another through any medium.
There are various levels in communication like Intrapersonal communication, Interpersonal communication,
Group communication and Mass communication.

Mass communication plays the vital role because it reaches very large number of audience.
Basically Mass communication has two forms one is Interpersonal communication and another one is media
communication.

Five major forms of communication

• Intrapersonal Communication
• Dyadic Communication
• Small Group Communication
• Public Communication
• Mass Communication

Fig. A. Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is a communication which

happens yourself. Here both Source (sender) and receiver is
only one. so, the feedback works without any interruption.
Example: A person can communicate himself through pain,
thinking, feelings and emotion etc.

Fig. B. Dyadic Communication

In Dyadic communication, two persons are
involved in this communication process. Here the
source becomes a receiver and receiver become
Source because of dynamic communication
process were the feedback’s are shared between
Source and the receiver.

Fig. C. Small Group Communication

More than two members involved in communication process

will become a group communication. If least number of
persons is involved in the group communication is called as
small group communication. In this communication process,
everyone becomes a Source as well as receiver through
sharing information and gives feedback to another.
 Fig. D. Public Communication

In public communication, Source or messages

from a single person will reach or received by
huge number of audience. But in this
communication there are no mutual feedbacks
between source and receiver like small group
communication and it’s only focused on Speaker.

Fig. E. Mass Communication

In mass communication, basically have a large number of

audience and they are all can’t grouped together in one place
so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access
with receiver. So, for that they need media like newspaper,
radio, television and internet.

Here the audience feedback is very less or delayed.

MODULE 2
LESSON 3: COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

Communication
It is usually defined as the transmission of information. The term can also refer just to the message
communicated or to the field of inquiry studying such transmissions. There are many disagreements about its
precise definition.

Technology
Technologies are artifacts made through a systematic application of knowledge and used to reach
practical goals. They are widely used in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily
life.

Importance of communication and technology:

It can improve the quality of human life because it can be used as a learning and education media, the
mass communication media in promoting and campaigning practical and important issues, such as the health
and social area. It provides wider knowledge and can help in gaining and accessing information.

There are four main types of communication technology that have contributed to the ease of sending
messages: telephone, radio, television, and internet.

16 Other Communication Technology Examples:

1. Phone
- one of the core communication technologies
- readily available
2. Email
- one of the most popular forms of communication technology
3. Blogs
- websites where people can share content, or posts, for other people to read.
4. Social Media
- the earliest of which launched at the end of the 20th century
- allow users to share their experiences and opinions with a worldwide audience.
5. Vlogs
- video logs
- visual versions of blogs
- people use camera on their computer or device or a handheld camera to record themselves
6. Podcasts
- audio-based forms of communication
7. Livestream
- like vlogging but it happens in real time
8. Online Chat
- Web chat offers users a form of instant communication.
- People use chat software on social media and business communication platforms to talk to friends,
family and colleagues
9. Web conferencing
- Conferencing technology makes it easier for employees to communicate with each other regardless of
where they're located.
10. Texting
- Short Message Services (SMS), or texting, allows individuals to send brief messages or images through
their smartphones.
11. Shared calendars
- Calendar sharing services allow users to invite coworkers or clients to see their calendars and, in
some cases, add or edit them.
- helps teams coordinate their work schedules and plan tasks
12. Forums
- A group forum is an online platform where people can post and respond to questions.
13. Wikis
- A wiki is a website for crowdsourcing information, where any member can view, add or edit content.
14. Collaborative documents
- such as virtual whiteboards and online word processors, allow multiple people to work on the same
document
15. Wearable Technology
- You can carry various types of wearable technology on your body to make communication quick, easy
and hands-free.
- Smart watches, smart glasses, exercise bracelets
16. Smart Speakers
- You can place smart speakers in your home or office to act as voice-activated personal assistants.
- make work and communications more efficient