1.
Frequency Response and Stability
Frequency response describes how the gain of an op-amp changes with frequency.
Op-amps have a dominant low-frequency pole which limits the bandwidth.
Unity-gain bandwidth (GBW): frequency at which gain = 1.
At high frequencies, phase shifts can cause instability or oscillations in feedback
systems.
2. Compensation Techniques
Used to improve stability in feedback op-amp circuits.
Dominant pole compensation: adds a low-frequency pole to reduce gain and ensure
phase margin.
Lead compensation: adds a zero to offset phase lag.
Lag compensation: reduces bandwidth but improves stability.
Goal: maintain phase margin > 45° for stable systems.
3. Slew Rate and Full-Power Bandwidth
Slew Rate (SR): Maximum rate of change of output voltage (V/μs).
o Limits how fast output can respond to rapid input changes.
Full-Power Bandwidth: Maximum frequency at which the output can swing at full
amplitude without distortion.
o Related to SR by:
4. Gain, Input Impedance, Output Impedance
Open-loop gain (A): Very high (10⁵–10⁶).
Closed-loop gain: Set by external resistors in feedback network.
Input Impedance:
o Ideally infinite; practically 10⁶–10⁹ Ω.
o High input impedance prevents loading of source.
Output Impedance:
o Ideally zero; practically tens of ohms.
o Low output impedance allows driving heavy loads.
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8. Instrumentation Amplifier
High input impedance, high CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio).
Typically three op-amp stages:
o Two buffers for high-impedance input
o One difference amplifier for subtraction
Used in precise low-level signal amplification (e.g., sensors).
9. Voltage-to-Current and Current-to-Voltage Converters
Voltage-to-Current (V–I) Converter
Converts input voltage to proportional output current.
Common in current sources for LEDs, biasing transistors.
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Current-to-Voltage (I–V) Converter
Converts input current to proportional output voltage.
Used in sensor interfacing (e.g., photodiodes).
Equation:
Vout=−Iin×Rf
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🧠 Non-Linear Op-Amp Circuits
Unlike linear circuits, non-linear op-amp circuits exploit the op-amp's high gain and saturation
behavior to produce switching, waveform shaping, or nonlinear transfer functions.
1. Voltage Comparators
Compares two voltages: if Vin>Vref, output saturates to +Vsat; else to –Vsat.
Used in zero-crossing detectors and threshold detectors.
Types:
o Inverting Comparator
o Non-inverting Comparator
o With hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger) for noise immunity.
2. Multivibrators
Used for generating timing pulses or oscillations:
Astable Multivibrator: No stable state; continuously oscillates (generates square wave).
Monostable Multivibrator: One stable state; produces a single pulse when triggered.
Bistable Multivibrator (Flip-Flop): Two stable states; used in memory and switching.
3. Square-Wave Generators
A type of astable multivibrator.
Uses op-amp with positive feedback and an RC network.
Generates a continuous square wave output.
4. Function Generators
Produce various waveforms: sine, square, triangle.
Triangle wave typically derived from integration of square wave.
Uses combinations of op-amps as integrators and comparators.
5. Precision Rectifiers
Allows rectification of very small input voltages (below diode threshold ~0.7V).
Also known as superdiode circuits.
Types:
o Half-wave precision rectifier
o Full-wave precision rectifier
6. Log/Antilog Amplifiers
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Use of diode or transistor in feedback loop.
Applications in analog computation, signal compression, and dB measurement.
🔧 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Definition:
An Integrated Circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit consisting of multiple components
(resistors, capacitors, transistors) fabricated onto a single semiconductor substrate (chip).
Types:
Analog ICs: Operational amplifiers, voltage regulators, sensors.
Digital ICs: Logic gates, microprocessors, memory ICs.
Mixed-Signal ICs: Combine analog and digital (e.g., ADCs, DACs).
Characteristics:
Low cost, small size, reliability, and low power consumption.
Used in computers, phones, signal processing, control systems, etc.
Common ICs:
555 Timer: For timing, oscillation, pulse generation.
Op-Amp ICs: e.g., LM741, TL081.
Digital logic ICs: 74xx series (AND, OR, NOT, flip-flops).
Voltage Regulators: 7805 (+5V), 7812 (+12V), etc.
