Unit: 2 Social mobilization

and community development

2.1 Meaning, concept, purpose and history (in
Nepal) of social mobilization

Social means relationship between an organization of people and

the community.

In other words, it is an informal gathering or party organized by a

group of people.
 Social mobilization means:

 to make someone (or something) ready for action (or service)or,

 to organize (people) with a certain purpose

• Therefore, the term Social Mobilization, in a broader sense means

organizing people living in the same community with a specific
purpose.
 Social Mobilization

• It is a participatory process of empowering people, especially the poor

and socially excluded for their socio-cultural, political and economic
upliftment in a sustainable manner.

• It is the primary step of community development for recovery from

conflicts and disasters.
• It allows people to think and understand their situation and to
organize and initiate action for their recovery with their own initiative
and creativity rather than being imposed from outside.

• In recent year, social mobilization has become the new approach of

local development by which people in the community are organized
to share and discuss problem for finding solution from their own
concept.
Social Mobilization in Nepal

• Nepal has a long tradition of social mobilization.

• It has become an integral part of many development programs and it
has been recognized in the 10th Five-year Plan as a means for
contributing to the national poverty reduction goal.
Objectives of Social Mobilization in Extension
1. To make the people aware about different aspect of development.

2. To lay the foundations for long-term development in communities.

3. To make people aware about their right as citizen and exercise their
rights actively and regularly.

4. Socio-economically backward group requires guidance and

encouragement to recognize their potential for community
development.
5. To translate the capability of the citizen into production action.

6. To ensure local ownership of program inputs.

7. To help overcome outdated and harmful social customs

8. To increase local people’s access to knowledge and information.

2.2 Lesson learned from the past experience from
social mobilization
 Fast geographical coverage in a scattered way but targeted coverage was
low.

 Made the people aware about different aspect of development and laid
foundations for long-term development in communities.

 Tendency to cover accessible and semi-remote VDCs in the district was

seen.

 Encouraged local people to recognize their potential for community

development and capacitated them with skills and knowledge to improve
their productivity.
 Credit was a strong element but most of the agencies faced crisis of the capital.

 Small volume of loans make the social mobilization effort relatively costly and
difficult for the agencies to attain financial sustainability.

 Recognition of need for multi-sectoral support.

 Helped to overcome outdated and harmful social customs

 Linkage/ coordination with the local government was poor. As a result,

convergence of various efforts going on in the same area did not take place.

 Monitoring and information system(MIS) was input and process oriented. As a

result impacts of the efforts on change in magnitude of poverty remains
unknown.
2.3 Meaning and concept of development

Development is a multi-dimensional concept and its main objective

is to uplift the living standard of people.

The primary aim of development is to remove poverty and all other

socio economic evils which are interlinked with it.
Development is a long participatory process of social change which
aims for social progress of the majority of population of society
through a better understanding of their environment.

Development is a broad term which should not be limited to mean

economic development, economic welfare or material well-being.
Development in general includes improvements in economic, social
and political aspects of whole society like security, culture, social
activities and political institution.
Objectives of development
Economic Growth:
• Increasing income levels.
• Promoting industrialization
• Reducing poverty and income inequality.

Social Development:
• Improving education and literacy rates.
• Enhancing healthcare services and outcomes.
• Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation.
• Promoting gender equality and social inclusion.
Environmental Sustainability:
• Conserving natural resources.
• Reducing pollution and mitigating climate change.
• Promoting sustainable agricultural practices.

Technological Advancement:
• Fostering innovation and research.
• Promoting the adoption of new technologies in various sectors.

Infrastructure Development:
• Building and maintaining transportation networks.
• Improving urban planning and housing.
2.4 Rural and community development:
Approaches, strategies and types
Rural Development
• Rural development is the process of development of rural people
through various programs and projects so that they can become self-
reliant citizens of the country.

• It is a process of developing and utilizing natural and human

resources, technologies, infrastructural facilities, institutions and
organizations, government policies and programs to encourage and
speed up economic growth in rural areas, to create jobs and to
improve the quality of rural life towards self- sustenance.
Importance of Rural Development
1. Poverty Alleviation:
• A large proportion of the world's poor live in rural areas. Effective rural
development can significantly reduce poverty and improve living
standards.

2. Food Security:
• Rural areas are often the backbone of agricultural production.
Enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability is vital for
ensuring food security at local, national, and global levels.
3. Economic Growth:
• Rural development can stimulate economic growth by diversifying rural
economies beyond agriculture, fostering small and medium enterprises
(SMEs), and encouraging rural industries.

4. Reducing Urban Migration:

• Improving living conditions and economic opportunities in rural areas
can reduce the pressure of rural-to-urban migration.
• Balanced development between urban and rural areas can lead to more
sustainable and harmonious national development.
Community Development

• Community: A group of individual living within a definite locality with

some degree of we-feeling is known as community.

• Community development is an act of formulating and implementing

development programs collectively by the community members for
the common benefit of all the members.
Community Development as described by Mukherji:

• Process of change from the traditional way of living of rural

communities to progressive ways of living.

• Method by which people can be assisted to develop themselves on

their own capacity and resources.

• Program for accomplishing certain activities in fields concerning the

welfare of the rural people.
Four major strategies of rural development

1. Growth oriented strategy

• The philosophy is that rural people, like anyone else, make rational
decisions when given the right opportunities and environment. They will
work to solve problems like poverty, unemployment, and inequality in their
society.

2. Welfare oriented strategy

• The assumption of this strategy are that people are not competent to
identify and resolve their problem. This strategy seeks to promote the well
being of the rural population.
3. Responsive strategy
• This strategy aims to support people in rural areas by helping them
organize and address their own needs. Community members
participate in programs led by NGOs. The focus is on empowering
individuals to define their challenges and find solutions with support
from these organizations.

4. Integrated or holistic strategy:

• Holistically, it is integrating of all the development strategies, the
growth oriented, welfare oriented and the responsive strategy to
achieve the goal of economic growth, human welfare, social and
gender equity with full participation of community people. To achieve
the goal of development, it requires decentralization of structures,
vertical and lateral integration.
Approaches to Rural Development
• Basically, there are two general approaches to development.

1. Human Resource Development (HRD) Approach:

• Focuses on developing the skills, knowledge, and capacities of individuals
and communities.
• Emphasizes education, healthcare, skills training, and empowerment of
local people.
• Aims to improve quality of life and sustainable development by enhancing
human potential.
• Seeks to foster social and political transformation through community
mobilization and participation.
2. Material Output Approach:
• Focuses on increasing physical outputs such as agricultural production,
infrastructure development, and industrialization.
• Emphasizes economic growth and productivity.
• Often driven by policies and investments aimed at boosting economic
output and infrastructure in rural areas.
• While important for economic development, it may not directly address
social equity or empower local communities as comprehensively as the
HRD approach.
Types of rural development
1. Agricultural Development:
• Focuses on enhancing agricultural productivity.
• Involves the introduction of new farming techniques, crop varieties,
irrigation methods, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides.

2. Economic Development:
• Aims to diversify rural economies beyond agriculture.
• Promotes small and medium enterprises (SMEs), rural industries, and
tourism to create employment opportunities and stimulate economic
growth.
3. Infrastructure Development:
• Involves building and improving physical infrastructure such as roads,
bridges, water supply, sanitation and electricity.
• Enhances connectivity and access to markets, services, and resources.

4. Social Development:
• Focuses on improving social services and welfare.
• Includes initiatives in healthcare, education, housing, and social
security.
5. Environmental Development:
• Promotes sustainable management of natural resources.
• Involves conservation practices, reforestation, soil conservation,
and the promotion of renewable energy sources.

6. Institutional Development:
• Aims to strengthen local governance and community
organizations.
• Enhances the capacity of local institutions to plan, implement, and
manage development projects.
2.5 Decentralization: Concept, types, principles,
advantages and disadvantages
Decentralization

• A French term made up of décentraliser + action; meaning the

dispersion of functions and powers from a central authority to
regional, local bodies and other organizations.

• Decentralization refers to the distribution of authority, power, and

decision-making from a central governing body to smaller units or
levels within an organization or state.
• Under decentralization, responsibilities such as planning,
management, and resource raising and allocation are transferred
from central government to:

i. Field-units of central government ministries or agencies;

ii. Sub-ordinate units or levels of government;
iii. Semi-autonomous public authorities or corporations;
iv. Area-wide regional or functional authorities; or
v. Organizations of the private and voluntary sector.
Decentralization reforms focus on:

1) The relationships between three major sectors of governance,

namely, the public sector, the private sector, and the voluntary sector.

2) The structure and processes of decision making and on resource and

responsibility allocation among different levels of government.
 Decentralized
Development Tiers in
Nepal
Types/ Forms of Decentralization
Forms of Decentralization
1. Administrative decentralization is the transfer of authority over
regional staff from the central government to regional or local
governments.

2. Market decentralization is the most decentralized form in as much as

decision- making power is transferred from public to private organizations.

3. Political decentralization (or democratic decentralization) is the

selection of local government officials by local election rather than by
central government appointment

4. Fiscal decentralization is the transfer of responsibility for raising and

spending program funds to lower level government units.
Forms of administrative decentralization
1. De-concentration involves central government dispersing staff
responsibilities to regional offices without changing the basis for
authority and control. This is not true decentralization and can actually
increase central control and influence.

2. Delegation is the transfer of responsibility for public functions to lower

levels of government or to other organizations, which implement
programs on behalf of the central government.

3. Devolution: Local governments are assigned clear and legally

recognized geographical boundaries over which they exercise authority,
and within which they perform public functions (e.g. raising revenues,
investment decisions). It is this type of administrative decentralization
that underlies most political decentralization.
Forms of market decentralization
1. Privatization is government transfer to the private sector of
managerial, fiscal, and decision making control, while retaining normal
regulatory authority. True decentralization is considered to involve a
mix of three reform strategies:

2. Deregulation which consists of transferring services provision or

production activities previously owned or regulated by the public sector
to competing private organizations (e.g. electricity or broadcasting
provided by various and competing companies)

3. Partnerships between public and private/ voluntary sectors, within

market decentralization and devolution processes, based on
cooperative or business arrangements involving government, non
government and civil society organizations.
2.6 Federalism for development: Nepalese
experiences
Historic Transition to Federalism
In September 2015, Nepal laid foundation of democratic federalism and adopted
its new constitution, transitioning from a unitary form of government to a federal
democratic republic.

The federal system aims to distribute power across different levels of

government, ensuring representation and addressing historical inequalities.

The country is divided into seven provinces, each with its own government and
legislative assembly.

The move aimed to address historical inequalities, promote power-sharing, and

integrate development programs.
Key Aspects of Nepal’s Federalism:
 Three Tiers of Government: Nepal’s federal system comprises three levels:

a. local government,
b. provincial government, and
c. federal government.

This constitution established Nepal as a federal republic, recognizing the

historically disadvantaged position of various social groups, including the Dalit
(untouchables) and Indigenous people

Decentralization: Federalism allows for the decentralization of development

benefits, making service delivery more effective and accountable.
2.7 Local governance: Past experience,
Local Governance Operation Act 2017
• Governance: It is the system which governs the family, community
and even a whole nation.

• Government: Government itself is an executing body.

• Local governance is a system which has responsibility to manage local

development through proper coordination, planning, monitoring,
judiciary and revenue generation.
Features of local governance
• Local governments are the closest unit of the grassroots communities.

• This governance system and create enabling environment to promote the

democratic values and public participation mainly from marginal section in
decision making process.

• It also accelerates the economic development so that they enhance the peoples'
capacity and enable them to influence the local government representatives for
responsive governance.

• Local government (LG) is a public institution in a small geographic area, such as a

city, town, or county, which are the most closet and trustworthy organizations of
the local citizen.
1. Structure: The act establishes a three-tier local government system
comprising municipalities, rural municipalities, and wards. Each level has
specific roles and functions.

2. Functions: Local governments are responsible for various areas, including

education, health, sanitation, infrastructure, and social development. They
can levy taxes, manage resources, and implement development projects.

3. Disaster Risk Reduction: The act emphasizes disaster risk reduction and
management. Local governments play a crucial role in disaster preparedness,
response, and recovery.

4. Participation: The act encourages citizen participation, transparency, and

accountability in local governance.
Local goverance: Past experiences in Nepal
• Historical Context: Nepal historically had a centralized governance
system where power was concentrated in Kathmandu, the capital city.
Local governance structures were often weak, with limited autonomy
for local governments and communities.

• Decentralization Reforms: The decentralization process in Nepal

gained momentum after the restoration of democracy in 1990. The
Constitution of Nepal 1990 introduced provisions for local self-
governance, aiming to empower local bodies and enhance their role
in decision-making
• Local Self-Government Act: In 1999, the Local Self-Government Act
was passed, laying the groundwork for establishing elected local
bodies at the village, municipality, and district levels. This marked a
significant step towards decentralization by devolving administrative,
fiscal, and political powers to local governments.

• Maoist Insurgency and Interim Period: The Maoist insurgency (1996-

2006) posed challenges to local governance structures, disrupting
normal administrative functions and governance processes. During
the interim period following the Comprehensive Peace Agreement
(2006), efforts were made to restructure local governance to
accommodate diverse political interests
• Constitutional Reforms: The promulgation of the new Constitution of
Nepal in 2015 reaffirmed the commitment to decentralization and
local self-governance. It established a three-tier federal structure
comprising federal, provincial, and local levels, with clear delineation
of powers and responsibilities between them.

• Implementation Challenges: Despite legal and constitutional reforms,

the effective implementation of decentralization has faced challenges.
These include capacity-building at the local level, resource
constraints, bureaucratic inertia, and political interference in local
governance processes.
• Empowerment and Participation: Decentralization in Nepal has
aimed to empower marginalized communities, including women,
Dalits (socially marginalized groups), and indigenous peoples, by
ensuring their representation and participation in local decision-
making processes.

• Recent Developments: In recent years, efforts have been made to

strengthen local governance through initiatives such as the Local
Governance and Community Development Programme (LGCDP),
which focuses on capacity-building, local infrastructure development,
and enhancing service delivery at the grassroots level.
Local Governance Operation Act 2017
• The Local Governance Operation Act 2017 is a significant legislative
framework in Nepal that outlines the structure, functions, and operational
procedures of local governments.

• It was formulated by the Government of Nepal in 2017 AD for the

operation of local government in Nepal. The Act also includes the Roles,
Responsibility and Power of the Local Government in Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management.

• The Local Government Operation Act 2017 in Nepal outlines the functions,
responsibilities, and powers of local government bodies.
Key aspects of Local Governance Operation
Act 2017 are:

• Legal Framework: The Act was enacted to operationalize the

provisions related to local governance as stipulated in the
Constitution of Nepal 2015. It provides legal clarity and guidance on
the roles, responsibilities, and powers of local governments at various
levels.
• Three-tier Structure: The Act establishes a three-tier structure of
local government:

Rural Municipalities (Gaupalikas)

Municipalities (Nagarpalikas)
Metropolitan Cities (Mahapalikas)

Each tier has its own set of functions and responsibilities, which include
local planning, development, service delivery, and resource
management.
• Powers and Functions: The Act delineates the powers and functions
of local governments, including:

Urban planning and development

Infrastructure development (roads, water supply, sanitation)

Education and health services at the local level

Local economic development and promotion of industries

Environmental conservation and disaster management

• Election and Representation: It outlines the electoral process for
local governments, including provisions for direct election of
representatives at the local level. This ensures local accountability and
representation of diverse community interests.

• Financial Management: It provides guidelines for financial

management and resource mobilization by local governments. This
includes provisions for revenue generation, budget preparation, and
fiscal transfers from higher levels of government.

• Community Participation: The Act emphasizes the participation of

local communities in decision-making processes. It mandates
mechanisms for citizen engagement, public hearings, and
consultations in local governance matters.
• Capacity Building and Support: Recognizing the need for capacity
building at the local level, the Act outlines provisions for training and
support to elected representatives and local government officials to
enhance their governance skills and capabilities.

• Implementation Challenges: Like many legislative frameworks, the

implementation of the Local Governance Operation Act has faced
challenges such as bureaucratic hurdles, resource constraints, and
varying capacities among local governments. Efforts are ongoing to
address these challenges and ensure effective implementation across
all levels.
2.8 Role of Local agencies, community-based
Organization (CBOs) and Non-governmental
Organizations (NGOs) in social mobilization
Local agencies, CBOs, and NGOs play crucial roles in social mobilization by engaging
communities, fostering cooperation, and driving collective action towards common goals.
Here are some key roles they play:

1. Community Engagement and Empowerment:

• Local Agencies: These could be local government bodies, health departments, or
educational institutions which provide direct link to the community,
understanding local needs and dynamics.
• CBOs and NGOs: These organizations are deeply involved to understand local
communities, their cultures, languages, and social structures in order to empower
community members to participate actively in decision-making and
implementation of initiatives.
2. Advocacy and Awareness Building
• NGOs: They specialize in advocacy and raising awareness about specific social
issues such as health, education, a n d human rights. They mobilize public
opinion, influencing policy and decision-makers.

• CBOs: They focus on grassroots awareness campaigns, using local knowledge to

effectively communicate messages within communities.
3. Capacity Building and Training
• NGOs: Provide training and capacity-building programs to community
members, enhancing their skills and capabilities in various areas such as health care,
sustainable agriculture, entrepreneurship, etc.

• Local Agencies: Offer resources and support for community-led initiatives,

facilitating skill development and knowledge transfer.
4. Service Delivery and Support:
•Local Agencies: Responsible for delivering essential services such as healthcare, education,
and infrastructure development directly to communities.
•NGOs and CBOs: Often fill gaps where government services are insufficient or
inaccessible, providing specialized services or support tailored to local needs.

5. Monitoring and Evaluation:

•NGOs and CBOs: They conduct assessments and evaluations to measure the impact of
social mobilization efforts. This helps in adjusting strategies, improving effectiveness, and
ensuring accountability to stakeholders.
6. Building Partnerships and Networks:
i. NGOs: Form partnerships with other NGOs, governmental bodies, private sector
organizations, and international agencies to leverage resources, expertise, and

influence.
ii. CBOs: Strengthen local networks and collaborations, fostering solidarity and
collective action within communities.

6. Crisis Response and Resilience:

 Local Agencies and NGOs: Play critical roles during emergencies and disasters,
mobilizing resources and coordinating relief efforts. They also work on long-term
resilience-building measures to prepare communities for future challenges.
2.9 Concept and principle of sustainability
development

• Sustainable development is defined as the development process

which meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

• In other words, it is a pattern of social and structural transformations

(i.e. development) which optimizes the economic and benefits
available in the present without endangering the potential for similar
benefits in the future (Goodland and Ledoc, 1987).
• Sustainable development is the multi-disciplinary, complex and
systematic process of development which implies development with
conservation strategy.

• It aims to conserve earth’s natural resources along with

development.

• Key concepts of sustainable development is to conduct development

work according to need and using limited resources so that
environmental capacity meets both present and future.
Three essential aspects of sustainable
development

a. Economic aspect:
An economically sustainable system must be able to produce goods
and services on a continuous basis–to maintain manageable levels of
government and external debt, and to avoid extreme sectorial
imbalances which damage agricultural or industrial production.
b. Environmental aspect:
An environmentally sustainable system must maintain a stable resource
base, avoiding over-exploitation of renewable resource systems and
depleting non-renewable resources. This includes maintenance of
biodiversity, atmospheric stability, and other ecosystem functions.

c. Social aspect:
A socially sustainable system must achieve fairness in distribution and
opportunity, adequate provision of social services including health and
education, gender equity, and political accountability and participation.
Principle of SD
• Holistic Development

• Development within the boundary of environment

• Development within sociocultural and traditional knowledge base

• Enhance quality of life

• Promote collectiveness
• Need of the future generation

• Global diversity

• Peoples' participation and empowering to manage their surrounding

and natural resources

• Based on national policy and needs

• Judicious use of resources

2.10 A brief overview of efforts and approaches of
rural development in Nepal over the last decades
• Overall, Nepal's rural development efforts have evolved from
centralized planning to more decentralized and participatory
approaches which was aimed to empower local communities,
enhance livelihoods, and promote sustainable development in rural
areas.

• Rural development efforts in Nepal have evolved through various

approaches and initiatives aimed at improving livelihoods,
infrastructure, and overall well-being in rural areas.
1. Integrated Rural Development Programs (IRDPs): In the 1960s and
1970s, Nepal implemented IRDPs with support from international
donors like the World Bank and UN agencies. These programs
focused on comprehensive development strategies that included
agriculture, education, health, and infrastructure development.

2. Community Development Programs: In the 1980s, Nepal

emphasized community-based approaches to rural development.
This included initiatives like the Small Farmer Development Program
(SFDP), which aimed to empower local communities in decision-
making and resource management.
3. Decentralization and Local Governance: Following the restoration of
democracy in 1990 and subsequent constitutional reforms, Nepal
embarked on decentralization efforts. The Local Self-Governance Act of
1999 and subsequent reforms aimed to empower local governments
(gaupalikas, nagarpalikas, and mahapalikas) to take charge of local
development planning, resource allocation, and service delivery.

4. Poverty Alleviation Programs: In the 2000s, Nepal implemented

various poverty alleviation programs with support from international
agencies and NGOs. These programs focused on improving income
opportunities, providing microfinance, promoting agricultural
productivity, and enhancing access to basic services in rural areas.
5. Rural Infrastructure Development: Infrastructure development has
been a crucial component of rural development efforts. This includes
projects to improve rural roads, drinking water supply systems,
irrigation facilities, electrification, and telecommunications
infrastructure to connect rural areas with urban centers.

6. Livelihood Diversification and Agriculture Enhancement: Efforts

have been made to promote sustainable agriculture practices, improve
access to agricultural inputs and technologies, and diversify livelihood
options beyond agriculture. Initiatives like the Agriculture Development
Strategy (ADS) aim to enhance agricultural productivity and food
security.
7. Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Resilience: Given Nepal's
vulnerability to natural disasters, including earthquakes, floods, and
landslides, there have been efforts to integrate disaster risk reduction
and climate resilience into rural development strategies. This includes
building resilient infrastructure and promoting community-based
disaster preparedness and response.

8. Social Inclusion and Gender Equality: Recognizing the importance of

social inclusion and gender equality in development, efforts have been
made to ensure marginalized groups, including women, Dalits,
indigenous peoples, and other disadvantaged communities, are
included in rural development processes and benefit equitably from
development interventions.
9. Private Sector and Market Linkages: More recently, there has been a
focus on promoting private sector engagement and market linkages for
rural producers and entrepreneurs. This includes supporting micro,
small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) and facilitating access to
markets for rural products.
2.11 Issues and problems of rural and
community development in Nepal
• Infrastructure Deficiencies: Many rural areas lack basic infrastructure
such as roads, electricity, clean water, and sanitation facilities. This
hampers economic activities and quality of life.

• Poverty: Rural poverty remains pervasive, with many households

lacking access to sufficient income and basic necessities. This is
exacerbated by limited job opportunities and seasonal agriculture.

• Education and Healthcare: Rural areas often have inadequate access

to quality education and healthcare services. Schools and health
facilities are sometimes distant, poorly equipped, or understaffed.
• Gender Inequality: Women in rural areas often face significant
disparities in terms of access to education, healthcare, and
economic opportunities. Cultural norms and traditional roles
contribute to this inequality.

• Governance and Corruption: Nepal is the 117 least corrupt

nation out of 180 countries, according to the 2021
Corruption Perceptions Index reported by Transparency
International. Third most corrupt country in South Asia. Weak
governance, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and corruption can
hinder effective implementation of rural development programs
and equitable distribution of resources.
 Trade deficit: The condition in which the valuation of a country
import is more than its export is called trade deficit. In 2020 alone,
the trade deficit of Nepal was amounted to $ 9.86 billion. In Nepal,
we have a huge dependency over India i.e. 60% of our economic
activities are with India.

 Mass Poverty: It is a condition where a significant portion of the

population lives below the poverty line, struggling to meet basic
needs such as food, shelter, healthcare, and education. Mass
poverty remains a significant challenge in Nepal, affecting a
substantial portion of its population across both rural and urban
areas.
 Unemployment: It is another challenge for economic development. Like
poverty increases the burden and reduces the working hands in an
economy. In 2020, the unemployment rate in Nepal was around
4.44 percent but is gradually increasing over time. It also
accelerates higher labor migration to abroad.

 Dependency in Agriculture and Remittance: 68 % of Nepalese

population is dependent upon agriculture. Nepalese economy is heavily
dependent on two sector: agriculture sector and remittance which
accounts for 23 % and 24 % of Nepalese GDP. Agriculture sector is
also heavily dependent upon indian market for raw materials and
goods, thus scalability and success of agriculture is totally upon
indian market forces
 Lack of investment in capital projects: Rural communities often
have limited access to financial services and credit, which constrains
investment in agriculture, small businesses, and infrastructure
development. For the FY 2078/79, Rs. 347 billion has been
allocated for capital expenditure which is 21 percent of the total
budget. Very limited budget is allocated for investments that
promotes the productivity in the country and make a country march
towards self-reliant status.

 Lack of Industries and Enterprises: This is the outcome of lack of

capital projects. Nepalese investments are either fulfilling the basic
needs or are investment in regular non- risky projects. Only around
11% of Nepal’s GDP comes from industry sector which is very low for
flourishing economy.
• Landlessness and Land Tenure: Landlessness and insecure land
tenure are prevalent issues, leading to disputes and hindering
agricultural development and investment.

• Unequal access to productive assets such as land and credit critically

constrain equal access to economic opportunities.

• Climate Change: Climate change impacts, such as erratic weather

patterns, natural disasters and shifting agricultural zones cause
challenges to rural livelihoods and food security.
UNIT 3 Group formation and group
dynamics
Group
 Why do people join in group?
• People join groups for several reasons:

Belonging: People have a natural desire to feel connected to others.

Being part of a group gives them a sense of belongings.

Support: Groups provide emotional, social, and sometimes financial

support. Members can help each other during tough times and celebrate
together during good times.

Shared Interests: Joining a group allows people to connect with others

who have similar interests, hobbies, or goals, making activities more
enjoyable and fulfilling.
Security and Safety: Groups can offer protection and safety, both
physically and emotionally. There's strength in numbers, and being in
a group can make people feel more secure.

Achievement of Goals: Working in a group can make it easier to

achieve common goals. Collaborating with others can bring in
different skills making it easier to succeed.

Influence and Power: Being part of a group can increase an

individual's influence and power. Groups can achieve things that
individuals might find difficult on their own.
Stages in group formation
1. Forming stage:
This is the first stage of a team coming together.

A group of people have come together to accomplish a shared purpose.

At the beginning, confusion is high, people are uncertain.

This stage can last as people get to know each other.

There is a lack of clarity about the teams purpose and individual roles.
2. Storming stage
This stage starts when they voice their opinions and as a result of this
conflict may arise between team member as power and status are
assigned.

This is the hardest stage in the development of any team, and undoubtedly
team will be at its least effective.

Teams may also disagree on goals and thus subgroups may form.

Many teams often fail at this stage.

This stage is marked by conflict and competition because working styles

begin to evolve.
3. Norming stage
The team will begin to resolve their interpersonal differences, appreciate
others and form working relationships.

In this stage, all team members take the responsibility and have the
ambition to work for the success of the teams goals.

They accept others as they are and make an effort to move on.

At this point, performance increases as the team begins to cooperate and
focus on the goals.

People feel part of the team and realize that they can achieve goal if they
accept others viewpoint.
4. Performing stage
At this point, relationship are formed and there is clear and stable
structure.

The team is matured and organized.

Problems and conflict, of course, do still arise, but they are dealt with
effectively.

The prime focus of the team is on problem solving and meeting goals.

At this stage, effectiveness is at peak.

5. Adjourning
This is the point where the project comes to an end and the team
separates and goes their separate ways.

Some team members may find this hard because they liked the
routine of the group, have made close friendships etc.

Group leader should allow for celebration.

• Group: A collection of individuals who come together to achieve a
common goal and interact with each other. Ex: A project team at work

• Group dynamics: Study and anlaysis of the interaction, behavior,

processes and changes that occur within a group. It encompasses
how groups are formed, how members communicate, make
decisions, resolve conflicts and how leadership emerges and
influences the group.
 Group Dynamics
• Made up with two words:

group : collection of two or more individuals

dynamic: force

• It means the study of forces and influences within a group, especially

in a small group with the help of which the behavior of the members
changes in a definite direction.
Figure: Diagram showing features of group dynamics
• Includes the processes and interactions that take place within a social
group. These dynamics influence the behavior and performance of
the group and its members.

• Group dynamics concern how groups form, their structure and

process, and how they function.

• Group dynamics are relevant in both formal and informal groups of all
types.
 Importance of group dynamics in an
organization
• In an organizational setting, groups are very common.

• The study of groups and group dynamics is an important area of study

in organizational behavior.
Enhance performance
Increase innovation
Increase motivation and satisfaction
Importance of group dynamics
Nature of social group and social properties
• A social group is a collection of individuals who interact with each
other share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of
unity.

• Some salient features of nature of a social group are:

1) Interaction:
• Members of a social group interact with each other regularly.
Interaction can be direct (face-to-face) or indirect (through digital
communication).
2) Common Identity:
• Members share a sense of belonging and a common identity. This identity can
be based on various factors such as interests, beliefs, or social categories
(e.g., age).

3) Shared Goals and Interests:

• Social groups often form around shared goals, interests, or activities. For
instance, a book club is formed by individuals interested in reading and
discussing books.
4) Structure:
• Social groups have a certain structure, which can be formal or
informal. Formal groups, like organizations, have defined roles and
rules, while informal groups, like friendships are more flexible.

5) Norms and Roles:

• Groups develop norms and roles that guide interactions.
 Group properties
• Interaction: Members of a group interact regularly. This interaction
can be direct or indirect .

• Structure: Groups have an established structure that defines roles,

norms, and relationships among members. This structure can be formal
or informal.

• Common Identity: Members of a group share a sense of identity or

belonging.
• Goals and Objectives: Groups often form to achieve specific goals or
objectives. These can range from social and emotional support to
achieving a particular task or purpose.

• Norms and Rules: Groups develop norms and rules that guide
members' behavior.

• Roles: Within a group, members often occupy specific roles that

contribute to the group's functioning. These roles can be based on
individual skills, status.
• Cohesion: The level of cohesion within a group reflects how strongly
members are connected and committed to the group. High cohesion
often leads to greater stability and solidarity.

• Size: Groups can vary in size from small to large. Smaller groups
often allowing for more intimate and direct interactions, while larger
groups may require more formal structures.
Meaning and concept of
conflict

• Conflict is the situation in which two or

more individuals disagree in a particular
idea or belief.

• Conflict decreases the effectiveness of

group and can be harmful for the group.
Concept of conflict
• When many individuals come together in a group, some inacceptable
differences in interests, expectations, values, or opinions arise
between them.

• It can occur in personal, social, professional or any other setting.

• It is nothing but a natural part of natural part of group dynamics that

may resolve on its own or sometimes lead to break any group.
Situation for conflict
1. Competition for scarce resource: Scarce resources are limited in amount
which cannot be distributed equally to all people. This creates conflict among
people to take ownership of those scarce resources by themselves thus
creating an environment for conflict.

2. Role or status: In group, role differentiation of people is determined by

this personnel character. Various level of authority is provided to each people
according to their capacity and qualification.
3. Diverse interest and needs: Every member in group do not have similar
need and interest. During performing work in group, due to various interest
and priority among members create an environment for conflict.

4. Personality clashes: Two members of a sports team have clashing

personalities—one is very competitive and aggressive, while the other is more
collaborative. This leads to frequent arguments about team strategy.
5. Communication breakdown: Team members from different cultural
backgrounds have misunderstandings due to different communication
styles and language barriers.

5. Inequitable workload distribution: Difference in workload,

responsibilities and failure of work recognition often leads to create
misunderstanding and differences between the members in a social
group.
Types of conflict
I. Personal conflict
 The conflict between two person within the same groups.
 For example conflict between two student for class organization .

II. The political conflict

 The conflict between parties for political power .
Stages of conflict
1. Latent Stage: Participants are not yet aware of the conflict.

2. Perceived Stage: Participants are aware that a conflict exists.

3. Felt Stage: Stress and anxiety increase.

4. Manifest Stage: Conflict becomes open and observable.

5. Aftermath: The outcome of the conflict, whether it is resolved or

dissolved.
Conflict Management
• Conflict management is the process by which disputes are resolved,
where negative results are minimized and positive results are
prioritized.

• This key management skill involves using different tactics depending

on the situation, negotiation, and creative thinking.
Conflict resolution technique or conflict
management technique
• Five techniques of conflict resolution are as follows:

1. Accommodating ( I lose, You win)

Accommodating involves dealing with the problem with self sacrifice,

an individual set aside his own concerns to maintain peace in the
situation.
This is win-lose situation.
2. Avoiding (No winners, no losers)
In this approach, there is withdrawal from the conflict.

In employing this, individuals end up ignoring the problem with view
that the conflict will resolve itself.

3. Collaborating( I win, you win)

Collaborating aims to find a solution to the conflict through co-
operating with other parties involved.

 Hence, communication is an important part of this strategy.

4. Competing( I win, you lose)
 Satisfaction of a party after winning over the next by competing.

Competition operates in which one loses and another win.

5. Compromising(I bend, you bend)

 This situation occurs when there is incomplete satisfaction resulting
in giving up something by both parties.

This is lose-lose situation.

Transition of conflict thought
• Conflict has always been viewed as a negative part in human
interaction.

• In a social group or organization, conflict has always been observed to

be bad, negative, and harmful which is a traditional approach to
understand conflict.

• Over the years, the attitude towards conflict has transitioned/

changed vastly. Some of the recognized phases in conflict are:
1. Traditional view of conflict
Traditional view
• It is a linear view of conflict theory in which conflict is viewed as path to
violence, destruction and a failure to reach the goal. So, conflict must be
avoided at all cost.

• In this approach, steps are taken to resolve/ suppress the conflict without
studying the actual cause of the problem.

• No efforts is made to communicate, understand, discuss, or analyze the

cause of conflict leading to correct/ solve those misunderstandings for
benefit of the organization.
2. Human Relations View
• This view dominated the conflict theory from late 1940s to mid
1970s.

• Also known as managed view, it recognizes conflict as a natural and

unavoidable phenomenon in any group. And that conflict can be
avoided by creating an environment of goodwill and trust.

• This view also states though conflict cant be eradicated completely in

an organization, it sometimes has the potential to create positive
impact in the organization.
3. Interactionist view
• It is the most recent view on conflict.

• According to this view, if a group is harmonious, peaceful and co-operative,

it is likely to get static and non-responsive to situation and needs that
require change or innovation.

• Thus, this view states that conflict is very necessary for the better
performance of any organization so that organization can cope with
changes in a better way.

• But conflict should be kept controlled to avoid dysfunctional changes. So

this view encourages to keep conflict to a certain standard so that
progressive results can be seen in any organization.
 Conflict intensity continuum
• A conflict intensity continuum is a model used by social science
researchers to describe conflict as a continuum from low to high
intensity.

• The intensity of conflict behavior can range from minor

misunderstandings to efforts to harm/ destroy the other party.

• It helps us differentiate between cooperation, peace, rivalry, contest,

crisis, and full-blown conflict among stakeholders.
• In essence, it captures the various stages and gradations of conflict,
allowing us to understand how conflicts evolve and escalate
(increases).
Conflict intensity continuum
• Dispute (Emergence): This phase corresponds to the initial
emergence of conflict. It starts with minor irritations or
disagreements.

• Crisis (Escalation): Conflict intensifies, leading to growing hostility and

increased tension. It’s the point just before violence erupts.

• Limited Violence: At this stage, conflict reaches its peak intensity,

characterized by violent actions or confrontations.
• Massive Violence: The conflict escalates further, potentially involving
large-scale violence, war, or armed aggression.

• Abatement (De-escalation): Conflict begins to subside, moving away

from the peak intensity. Efforts are made to reduce hostilities.

• Settlement: This phase represents the resolution of conflict, where

parties find common ground or reach agreements.
In essence, it captures the various stages and gradations of conflict,
allowing us to understand how conflicts evolve and escalate.
Measurement of conflict
• Some approaches and tools for measuring conflict in a social group
are:

1. Conflict Assessment Surveys

2. Conflict Sensitivity Assessment
3. Conflict Difficulty Score
1. Conflict Assessment Surveys:
• These surveys or assessments helps to identify and understand
conflict within a socials group.

• These tools help to understand conflict levels, existing conflict

management systems, and support system needed to manage the
conflict.

• Examples include the Organizational Conflict Management

Survey for social/political organizations to assesses whether there
are existing systems to address conflicts and identifies support
needs (e.g., training, skill-building).
2. Conflict Sensitivity Assessment
• A conflict sensitivity assessment is a valuable tool for ensuring that
projects and its activities do not accidentally cause harm in conflict-
affected areas.

• This involves analyzing context and actions to ensure they are

conflict-sensitive.

• The assessment helps organizations understand how their actions

may impact relationships between people and groups in a
community.
• The components of this assessment are:
I. Good Practice Guide: Provides guidelines for conducting the
assessment.
II. Conflict Sensitivity Checklist: Contains questions/checklist for
groups to discuss, analyzing both their context and their
actions.

• It’s good practice to repeat the assessment frequently to detect any

new triggering factor for conflict.

• It ensures that interventions are conflict-sensitive, minimizing

negative effects and maximizing positive impacts.
3. Conflict Difficulty Score
• Depending upon the nature of group, questionnaire is devised with weight
assigned for each question and create a composite score.

• For example, likert scale which measures opinions, attitudes, or behaviors

by presenting respondents with a statement or question, followed by a
series of five or seven answer options. Participants choose the option that
best reflects their feelings about the statement or question.

• These scales are highly adaptable and can be used across various topics,
from customer satisfaction surveys to market research. A typical Likert item
might ask respondents to rate their level of agreement or disagreement
with a statement using options like “Strongly Disagree,” “Disagree,”
“Neutral,” “Agree,” and “Strongly Agree.”
 Social facilitation process: social
facilitation, social loafing, group shift,
social influence
Social loafing

It is defined as the tendency of individuals

to exert less effort when working
collectively than when working
individually.

This reduction in effort can occur because

individuals feel less accountable, believe
their contribution is less noticeable.
Cause of social loafing
• Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed.

• Contribution not being evaluated on individual basis leads to decreased

motivation.

• Performance of group isn’t Compared with other groups.

• Poor or lack of coordination among group members.

• Belonging to same group is not important for member.

Steps to reduce social loafing
• Recognize individual effort and contribution: Identify and
recognize efforts and contributions of every individual in the group..

• Assign works to individual: Increasing the pressure for each person

in group to work hard.

• Assign Individual Responsibilities: Clearly define each member’s

role and responsibilities within the group. This makes each person
accountable for specific tasks.
• Set Clear Goals: Establish clear and attainable goals for the group.
When everyone understands what the group is working toward, they
are more likely to contribute.

• Provide Regular Feedback: Offer continuous feedback on individual

and group performance. Recognizing individual contributions can
motivate members to stay engaged.

• Increase Cohesiveness: Foster a sense of team spirit and unity. When

group members feel connected and valued, they are more likely to
contribute.

• Limit Group Size: Keep the group size manageable. Smaller groups
often reduce the likelihood of social loafing because each member’s
contribution is more noticeable.
• Implement Peer Evaluations: Use peer evaluations to assess each
member’s contribution. Knowing that peers will evaluate their work
can encourage members to put in more effort.

• Provide Incentives: Offer rewards for both individual and group

achievements. Rewards or recognition can motivate members to
contribute more effectively.

• Use Smaller Sub-Tasks: Break the main task into smaller,

manageable sub-tasks with clear deadlines. This can help members
focus and stay engaged.

• Monitor Progress: Regularly track and report the group’s progress.

Transparency can help identify and address any issues of
underperformance early on.
Group shift
Most of the times there are differences between individual decision making and
group decisions.

As an individual our view could be different related to a person or a decision but
the group can push us to change our stand.

As a result a high risk groups makes a conservative individual take high risks.

And a low risk group can make a high risk individual be conservative.

The decision of the group shows the dominant decision making norm that is
developed during the groups discussion.
Group shift is a case of groupthink in which members take decision from a
conservative view or aggressive/extreme risk view.

So there are two extreme views in it.

There is a shift from the initial position of a group to a conservative position or risky
position.

Conservative position implies being very cautious.

Aggressive position implies group taking extreme risk which it would not have taken
if the members had to individually give a decision.
Lets take a common example
• As an individual I am clear that I don’t want to smoke.

• However when I am part of a group who regularly smoke then they tend to create a pressure
on me.

• Sometime they also explain the benefits of the act and justifies it by giving examples.

• Finally I changed my decision and started smoking and the process of continue.

• A low risky group makes a high risk individual conservative in their approach.

• While a high risk group make an individuals aggressive in their approach.

Social facilitation
• It is the process of changing the performance of individual or a group
of people by another individual or group intentionally or
unintentionally.

• It involves the efforts by one or more person to change the attitudes,

feelings or behavior of one or more individual.

• It can be done for political gains, personal motives, or just to help

other person (quit a habit, support, motivate)
• For example, performance of a cyclist improves when they practice
with the group due to the practice of doing task in group.

• However, sometimes the individuals may show poor performance in

doing new tasks due to no familiarization or distraction or
nervousness. For example: sportsmen may show poor performance
due to large mass of opponent team.

• Even the mere presence or imagined presence of people influence

performance of individual.
Social influence
• It refers to how individuals adjust their behavior based on the
presence or actions of others.

• Social influence plays a significant role in shaping our attitudes,

beliefs, and behavior.
Types of social influence
3. Low ball techniques
• Here, the person is tricked into agreeing to a
relatively attractive proposition only to discover
later that the terms and conditions are relatively
different from those initially expected.
• Based on the principle of commitment and
consistency.
5. That’s not all techniques
• The persuader makes an offer but before the target can make a
decision, the persuader throws in something extras to make the deal
look even better.
6. Ingratiation
• This refers to getting others to like us so that they will be more willing
to agree to our request.
• Others enhancement:
• Opinion conformity:
• Incidental conformity:
• Self promotion:
History of group approach of community
development and extension
• Traditional community groups based on community support, religion,
caste, and self-help have historical roots in Nepal.

• Group work for development has been in practice from a long time;
decades before the term “group approach” was conceptualized,
modeled, and given structure as a method for community
development.
• A definite date for the origin and continuation of group approach and
group formation is not available.

• The community development by group formation gained popularity

when investment were made through various NGOs and INGOs to
solve community problems around 1960s and early 1970s in various
issues like such as drinking water, forest and irrigation systems.

• Group model emerged as a concept of ‘participatory development’, in

which people living in a community were organized into groups to
share and discuss problems, to seek solutions by mobilizing
resources, and to become more active participants in the decision-
making processes that impact their lives.
• Around the 1980s, this model caught the attention of policy makers
and national governments and by 1990s it was adopted as a valid
model for community development in Nepal.

• Donor agencies as well as local governments rapidly adopted group-

formation approach to form issue specific groups in order to foster
development from below

• Although no official record of the number of groups formed in Nepal

exists, a report estimated that by 2004 there were more than 400,000
groups.
• Broadly, groups can be classified into two types – the self-initiated
‘traditional’ groups and the contemporary ‘sponsored’ groups
promoted or supported by state agencies, NGOs, development
programmes, and projects.

• The Government of Nepal (GoN) supports social mobilization as

development model for rural communities. It is now the most
recognized approach for group formation.