SWEP

GROUP C
MET & MAT DEPT ORIENTATION
23-07-25

FORGING
Forging is a metalworking process where heat and pressure are applied to metal to
reshape and strengthen it without melting. It's used to make strong parts like tools,
engine components, and fasteners.

1. Heat Treatment Process

This involves controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their mechanical
properties (hardness, strength, ductility).​
Common types:

●​ Hardening​

●​ Tempering​

●​ Annealing​

●​ Case Hardening

2. Welding
Welding is the joining of two metals by melting their edges and adding a filler
material to form a strong joint.​
Types include:

●​ Arc welding​

●​ Gas welding​

●​ MIG/TIG welding

3. Electroplating
This is the process of coating a metal surface with another metal using electric
current.​
Example: Coating iron with zinc (galvanizing) to prevent rust.

4. Foundry Operations
Foundry involves melting metal, pouring it into moulds, and letting it solidify into a
specific shape.​
Processes include:

●​ Pattern making​

●​ Core making​

●​ Melting​

●​ Moulding​

●​ Pouring​

●​ Shakeout​

●​ Cleaning

Structure and Height of Blast Furnace

●​ A blast furnace is a tall, vertical steel structure (~30–40 meters high) lined with
refractory bricks.​

●​ It is used for extracting iron from iron ore using coke, limestone, and hot air.​

🔧 Uses:
●​ Produces Pig Iron, which is the raw material for making steel.

Wrought Iron and Pig Iron

 ●​ Pig Iron: First product from the blast furnace, high in carbon, brittle, not very
strong.​

●​ Wrought Iron: Iron with very low carbon, soft, ductile, and can be hammered
into shape.​

Pig iron is converted to steel in steel plants to improve its strength and usability.

Steel Making Furnaces

1. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)

●​ Uses electric arcs to melt scrap steel or iron.​

●​ Flexible and energy-efficient.​

2. Puddling Furnace (Historical)

●​ An older furnace for converting pig iron to wrought iron by manually stirring
molten metal.​

3. Bessemer Converter

●​ A large pear-shaped vessel that blows air through molten pig iron to reduce
carbon and make steel.​

●​ Fast and economical.

Hardening
Heating steel to a high temperature and rapidly cooling (quenching) it in water or oil
to increase hardness.

Case Hardening
Hardens only the surface layer of low-carbon steel while the inner core remains soft. It
improves wear resistance without making the whole part brittle.
Tempering
Reheating hardened steel to a lower temperature, then slowly cooling. It reduces
brittleness while keeping hardness.

Annealing
Heating metal and allowing it to cool slowly in the furnace. It makes the metal softer,
more ductile, and easier to work with.

24-07-25
1.​FOUNDRY WORKSHOP
Meaning of Foundry:

A foundry is a workshop or factory where metal is melted and cast into specific shapes
by pouring the molten metal into molds. It is a vital part of manufacturing and
engineering used to produce components such as machine parts, tools, engine blocks,
pipes, and other metal structures.

Foundry Processes

1.​ Design

The design stage is the first and most important step in the foundry process. It involves
planning how the final casting will look and function. The goal is to ensure the casting
will meet the required shape, strength, and dimensional accuracy.

During this stage, the following are considered:

●​ Casting shape and dimensions​

(Based on the function and purpose of the product)​

●​ Material selection​
(Choosing the right metal or alloy for the job)​
 ●​ Pattern design​
(Including shrinkage and machining allowances)​

●​ Gating and riser system​

(Designing the paths for molten metal flow and solidification)​

●​ Defect prevention​
(Avoiding issues like shrinkage cavities, porosity, or cold shuts)​

A good design reduces waste, avoids defects, and ensures the final product performs
well in its application.

2.​ Pattern Making

Pattern Making is the process of creating a model or replica of the final casting product.
This pattern is used to form the cavity inside the mold, which the molten metal will fill.

Key Points:

●​ The pattern is usually made of wood, plastic, or metal.

Advantages of Using Wood in Pattern Making

1.​ Easily Available​

Wood is abundant and easy to source.​

2.​ Low Cost​

Cheaper compared to metals and plastics.​

3.​ Easy to Shape and Modify​

Can be cut, carved, and reshaped easily using hand tools.​

4.​ Lightweight​
Easier to handle, transport, and store.​

5.​ Good for Small Production Runs​

Ideal for low-volume or prototype casting work.​
 Disadvantages of Using Wood in Pattern Making

1.​ Low Durability​

Wears out quickly with repeated use.​

2.​ Moisture Absorption​

Wood absorbs water and can swell, warp, or decay, affecting dimensional
accuracy.​

3.​ Poor Dimensional Stability​

Changes in temperature and humidity can cause distortion.​

4.​ Surface Finish​

May not provide as smooth a surface as metal or plastic patterns.​

5.​ Less Suitable for High-Precision Castings​

Not ideal where tight tolerances are required.​

●​ It includes allowances for:​

○​ Shrinkage (because metal contracts as it cools)​

○​ Machining (extra material left for finishing)​

○​ Draft (a slight taper to allow easy removal from the mold)​

●​ The pattern also helps define the core prints, gating system, and risers.​

Types of Patterns:

●​ Single-piece pattern​

●​ Split pattern​

●​ Loose pattern​

●​ Match plate pattern​

●​ Cope and drag pattern​

Pattern making is a crucial step, as any defect or inaccuracy in the pattern will affect the
final casting.

3.​ Molding

Molding is the process of preparing a mold cavity into which molten metal will be
poured to form the desired casting. It is one of the most critical steps in the foundry
process.

Types of Molding Processes:

1.​ Green Sand Molding​

○​ Uses moist clay-bonded sand.​

○​ Most commonly used method.​

○​ Low cost and reusable.​

2.​ Dry Sand Molding​

○​ Sand mold is baked in an oven before pouring.​

○​ Provides better dimensional accuracy.​

3.​ Shell Molding​

○​ Uses a thin shell of sand and resin hardened with heat.​

○​ Produces high precision castings with smooth surfaces.​

4.​ Die Casting (Metal Molds)​

○​ Uses permanent metal molds.​

○​ Suitable for high-volume production of non-ferrous metals.​

5.​ Investment Casting (Lost Wax)​

○​ Uses wax patterns coated with ceramic.​

○​ Ideal for intricate shapes and fine details.​

6.​ CO₂ Molding​

○​ Uses silica sand and sodium silicate hardened by passing CO₂ gas.​

○​ Fast and strong molds.​

Types of Sand Used in Molding:

1.​ Green Sand – Natural sand, clay, and water.​

2.​ Dry Sand – Green sand that is dried or baked.​

3.​ Core Sand – Used to make cores, typically stronger and oil-bonded.​

4.​ Facing Sand – Comes into contact with molten metal for a smooth finish.​

5.​ Backing Sand – Fills up the rest of the mold box; reused sand.

Common Defects from Poor Molding:

●​ Blowholes – From trapped gases.

​
●​ Cracks – Due to uneven cooling or poor mold strength.​

●​ Misruns – Metal doesn’t fill the mold completely.​

●​ Sand Inclusion – Loose sand particles get stuck in casting.

Molding Equipment

1. Molding Box (Flask)

●​ A frame used to contain the molding sand.​

●​ Made in two parts:​

○​ Cope (top half)​

○​ Drag (bottom half)​

2. Pattern
●​ A replica of the object to be cast, used to form the mold cavity.​

3. Rammer

●​ A wooden or iron tool used to compact the sand around the pattern in the flask.​

4. Trowel

●​ Used to smoothen and level the sand surface.​

5. Slick

●​ A small tool used for finishing and repairing mold surfaces and corners.​

6. Sprue Pin / Sprue Rod

●​ A vertical rod used to create the sprue (metal entry path into the mold).​

7. Vent Wire

●​ A thin rod used to make small holes (vents) in the mold to let gases escape.​

8. Strike-off Bar / Straight Edge

●​ A flat tool used to level off excess sand from the top of the flask.​
 9. Lifter

●​ Used to remove sand from deep or narrow cavities in the mold.​

10. Draw Spike / Pattern Lifter

●​ Used to gently remove the pattern from the mold without damaging it.​

11. Brush

For cleaning the mold cavity and brushing off loose sand.

4.​ Core Making​

Core making is the process of creating cores, which are used to form hollow
sections or internal cavities in a casting that cannot be shaped by the mold
alone.

Key Points:

●​ Cores are usually made from core sand (a special sand mixed with binders for
strength).​

●​ They are placed inside the mold cavity before pouring the molten metal.​

●​ After casting, the core is broken and removed, leaving a hollow space in the
casting.​

Types of Cores:

●​ Green sand core – Made with the same sand used for molding.​

●​ Dry sand core – Made with special core sand and baked for strength.​

●​ Oil sand core – Made with sand mixed with oil binders.​

Functions of a Core:
●​ Create holes, passages, or recesses inside a casting.​

●​ Improve complexity and functionality of the product.​

5.​ Melting​
Melting is the process of heating solid metal until it becomes molten (liquid) so
it can be poured into the mold to form a casting.

Key Points:

●​ The metal is melted in furnaces specially designed for foundry use.​

●​ The temperature must be carefully controlled to avoid oxidation and

contamination.​

●​ The molten metal must be clean and homogeneous (well mixed).​

Common Metals Used:

●​ Cast iron​

●​ Aluminum​

●​ Steel​

●​ Bronze​

●​ Brass​

Types of Furnaces Used:

1.​ Cupola Furnace – For cast iron.​

2.​ Induction Furnace – Uses electromagnetic induction; clean and efficient.​

3.​ Crucible Furnace – Small batches of non-ferrous metals.​

4.​ Electric Arc Furnace – For melting steel and other metals using electric arcs.​

1. Blast Furnace
 ●​ A large vertical shaft furnace used mainly for producing pig iron from iron ore.​

●​ It uses a continuous blast of hot air to burn coke (a form of carbon).​

●​ The main use is not direct casting, but for producing molten iron, which can
later be used in foundries for casting.​

●​ Not common in modern small-scale foundries due to size and cost.​

Use: Industrial production of raw iron, not usually for direct casting operations.

2. Charcoal Fire Furnace (Traditional Furnace)

●​ A basic open furnace that uses charcoal as the fuel to heat and melt metal.​

●​ Still used in local or rural workshops where advanced equipment is not

available.​

●​ Made using clay, bricks, or metal drums.​

●​ Air is blown manually or with a blower to raise the temperature.​

Use: Suitable for small-scale or traditional casting, especially in places with

limited resources.

Important Considerations:

●​ Alloys and additives may be added during melting.​

●​ Slag (impurities) is removed before pouring.

6.​ Pouring​
Pouring is the process of transferring molten metal from the furnace into
the prepared mold cavity to form the casting.

It must be done carefully and skillfully to ensure a defect-free and complete

casting.
Steps Involved in Pouring:

1.​ Preparation​

○​ Ensure mold is properly closed, aligned, and dry.​

○​ Gating system (sprue, runner, ingate) must be clear of blockage.​

2.​ Ladle Use​

○​ Molten metal is taken from the furnace using pouring ladles

(hand-held or crane-operated).​

3.​ Pouring Action​

○​ Pour steadily and continuously, avoiding splashing.​

○​ Maintain a proper pouring temperature and rate.​

4.​ Feeding the Mold​

○​ Ensure metal fills the mold completely through the sprue and gating
system.​

Pouring Equipment:

●​ Ladles – For holding and transferring molten metal.​

○​ Hand ladle, Shank ladle, Crane ladle​

●​ Protective gear – Heat-resistant gloves, aprons, face shields.​

●​ Thermocouple – For checking pouring temperature.​

●​ Stopper rod mechanism – Used in large ladles to control metal flow.​

Precautions During Pouring:

●​ Mold must be completely dry to prevent explosions.​

●​ Avoid overfilling to prevent spillage or flash.​

●​ Pour at the right temperature to avoid cold shuts or shrinkage defects.​

●​ Always wear PPE (Personal Protective Equipment).​

7.​ Cooling and Solidification​

After pouring, the molten metal inside the mold must cool down and solidify
into the desired shape. This stage is critical for ensuring good casting quality.

What Happens During Cooling and Solidification:

1.​ Heat Transfer​

○​ Heat from the molten metal is absorbed by the mold and released into the
surrounding air.​

○​ The rate of cooling depends on the mold material, metal type, and
casting thickness.​

2.​ Solidification Begins​

○​ Metal starts to solidify from the outer mold wall inward.​

○​ Proper solidification prevents shrinkage cavities and cracks.​

3.​ Risers Feed the Metal​

○​ Risers act as reservoirs to supply extra molten metal during shrinkage as

the casting cools.​

Why This Step Is Important:

●​ Poor cooling can lead to defects such as:​

○​ Hot tears
○​ Shrinkage cavities
 ○​ Porosity​

●​ Uniform cooling helps achieve good grain structure and mechanical strength.​

Cooling Time Depends On:

●​ Type of metal (e.g. aluminum cools faster than iron)

●​ Size and shape of the casting
●​ Type of mold (metal molds cool faster than sand molds)​
​

8.​ Shakeout​
Shakeout is the process of removing the solidified casting from the mold
after the metal has completely cooled and solidified.

What Happens During Shakeout:

1.​ The mold is broken open to retrieve the casting.​

○​ In sand casting, the sand mold is broken apart manually or by vibration

machines.​

○​ In permanent mold casting, the mold is opened mechanically.​

2.​ The casting is separated from:​

○​ Sand (in sand casting)​

○​ Cores (if any were used)​

○​ Gating system (sprue, runner, riser)​

Tools and Equipment Used:

●​ Shakeout tables – Vibrating platforms that help loosen the sand.​

●​ Hammers or mallets – For manual shakeout.​

●​ Crane or lifting tools – For heavy castings.​

●​ Safety equipment – Because castings may still be hot and dusty.​

Safety During Shakeout:

●​ Casting must be completely cooled before handling.​

●​ Workers must wear gloves, goggles, dust masks, and safety boots.​

●​ Avoid inhaling silica dust from sand molds.​

9.​ Cleaning and Finishing​

After shakeout, the raw casting still has excess materials attached and may
have a rough surface. The cleaning and finishing process prepares the
casting for use or further machining.

Steps in Cleaning and Finishing:

1.​ Removal of Gating System​

○​ Sprues, runners, risers, and extra metal are cut off using chisels,
grinders, or cutting torches.​

2.​ Surface Cleaning​

○​ Sand and scale are removed from the casting surface using:​

■​ Wire brushing​

■​ Shot blasting / sandblasting​

■​ Grinding​

3.​ Fettling​

○​ The process of smoothing rough edges and removing sharp corners.​

4.​ Heat Treatment (optional)​

 ○​ The casting may be heat-treated to improve mechanical properties like
strength and toughness.​

Tools and Equipment Used:

●​ Grinding machines​

●​ Chipping hammers​

●​ Wire brushes​

●​ Air compressors (for blasting)​

●​ Cutting torches or power saws​

Importance of This Stage:

●​ Improves the appearance of the casting.​

●​ Ensures safe handling by removing sharp edges.​

●​ Prepares the casting for machining or assembly.​

●​ Helps in detecting surface defects for correction.

10.​Inspection and Testing​

Inspection and Testing is the final stage in the foundry process. It ensures
that the finished casting meets quality standards in terms of shape, size,
strength, and surface finish before it is approved for use.

Types of Inspection:

1.​ Visual Inspection​

○​ Checking for visible defects like cracks, blowholes, rough surfaces,

or incomplete filling.​
2.​ Dimensional Inspection​

○​ Using measuring tools (e.g., calipers, micrometers) to ensure the

casting matches the required dimensions.​

Types of Testing:

1.​ Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)​

(No damage to the casting)​

○​ Ultrasonic Testing – Checks internal defects.​

○​ Radiographic Testing (X-ray) – Reveals internal voids.​

○​ Magnetic Particle Testing – Detects surface cracks (for ferromagnetic

materials).​

○​ Dye Penetrant Testing – Highlights surface cracks on non-ferrous

metals.​

2.​ Destructive Testing​

(Casting is destroyed to test its properties – usually on sample castings)​

○​ Tensile Test – Measures strength.​

○​ Hardness Test – Checks surface hardness.​

○​ Impact Test – Checks toughness.​

Tools Used:

●​ Vernier caliper, micrometer​

●​ X-ray or ultrasonic equipment​

●​ Dye and developer sprays​

●​ Magnetic particle detectors​

 ●​ Universal testing machine​

Purpose of Inspection and Testing:

●​ Ensure product reliability and safety​

●​ Identify and correct defects​

●​ Meet customer specifications and standards​

●​ Avoid costly failures or returns​

FORGING WORKSHOP
25-07-25

Forging Workshop Note

Meaning of Forging

Forging is a manufacturing process in which metal is shaped by applying

compressive force, usually by hammering, pressing, or rolling.

It is often performed hot, meaning the metal is heated to make it softer and easier to
deform. However, cold forging (done at room temperature) also exists.

Common Forged Products:

●​ Bolts, nuts, gears, crankshafts, connecting rods, and tools.​

Advantages of Forging:

●​ Improves mechanical strength of metal.​

 ●​ Produces dense, defect-free components.​

●​ Reduces material waste compared to casting.

Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals (Contain Iron)

●​ Examples: Cast iron, mild steel, stainless steel, wrought iron.​

●​ Properties:​

○​ Strong and tough​

○​ Magnetic (mostly)​

○​ Susceptible to rust (except stainless steel)​

Non-Ferrous Metals (Do not contain iron)

●​ Examples: Aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, zinc, lead.​

●​ Properties:​

○​ Lightweight​

○​ Corrosion-resistant​

○​ Non-magnetic​

○​ Good conductivity (especially copper and aluminum)

Extraction of Iron from Iron Ore

Iron is extracted in a blast furnace using hematite (Fe₂O₃) or magnetite (Fe₃O₄) as raw
materials.

​ Main Steps:

1.​ Charging​
 ○​ Iron ore, coke (carbon), and limestone are fed into the top of the furnace.​

2.​ Combustion​

○​ Hot air is blasted at the bottom; coke burns to produce heat and carbon
monoxide (CO).​

3.​ Reduction​

○​ CO reduces iron ore to molten iron:​

Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂​

4.​ Formation of Slag​

○​ Limestone removes impurities, forming slag (CaSiO₃) which floats on

molten iron.​

5.​ Collection​

○​ Molten iron is tapped from the bottom; slag is removed from the top.

Steel Milling Organizations in Nigeria

Here are some major steel and iron-producing companies in Nigeria:

1.​ Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited (ASCL) – Kogi State​

○​ Nigeria’s largest steel mill (still undergoing development and revival

plans).​

2.​ Delta Steel Company (DSC) – Aladja, Delta State​

○​ A major producer of billets and steel products.​

3.​ Oshogbo Steel Rolling Mill – Osun State​

○​ Produces iron rods and other steel products.​

4.​ Jos Steel Rolling Company – Plateau State​

 ○​ Engaged in steel rod production.​

5.​ Katsina Steel Rolling Mill – Katsina State​

○​ Produces re-bars and steel rods.​

6.​ African Foundries Ltd – Ogijo, Ogun State​

○​ Privately owned and a major steel producer.

Tools Used in Forging

Forging tools are used to heat, hold, shape, and finish the metal during forging
operations.

Heating Tools:

●​ Forge (Furnace): Heats the metal until it becomes red hot and malleable.

​
 ●​ Tongs: Used to grip and hold hot metal safely.

●​ Fuel (Charcoal, Coal, or Gas): Provides the heat source.​

Shaping Tools:

●​ Hammer: Used to strike and shape the heated metal.​

○​ Types: Hand hammer, sledgehammer, power hammer.

​
 ●​ Anvil: A heavy iron block where the metal is placed for hammering.

●​ Swage Block: Has various shapes and holes to form specific profiles.​

●​ Fuller and Set Hammer: Used to create grooves or adjust specific parts.​

●​ Chisels and Punches: For cutting and making holes in hot metal.

Supporting Tools:
 ●​ Hardy Tool: Fits into the anvil’s square hole and helps in cutting.​

●​ Wire Brush: For cleaning the surface of the metal.​

●​ Quenching Tank: A container of water or oil used to cool hot forged metal.

Metal Work Terms (with Brief Explanation)

Here are some basic metalworking terms used in the workshop:

Term Brief Explanation

Annealing Heating metal and allowing it to cool slowly to soften it.

Hardening Heating then rapidly cooling metal (usually in water or oil) to make it
hard.

Tempering Reheating hardened metal slightly to reduce brittleness and

increase toughness.

Quenching Rapid cooling of hot metal to harden it.

Drawing Out Stretching metal by hammering to increase length and reduce

thickness.

Upsetting Shortening and thickening metal by hammering its end.

Bending Giving metal a curved shape by heating and hammering.

 Forge Joining two hot metal pieces by hammering them together.
Welding

Scarf Joint A type of joint used in forge welding to ensure strong bonding.

●​ Temperature Control

Temperature control in forging refers to maintaining the correct heat level of the
metal throughout the process.

Why It’s Important:

●​ Prevents overheating or underheating, both of which can weaken the metal.​

●​ Ensures proper grain structure and workability.​

●​ Improves forging accuracy and reduces defects.​

How It’s Achieved:

●​ Using thermocouples or infrared thermometers to monitor heat.​

●​ Controlling furnace settings or flame intensity.​

●​ Following standard color guides (e.g., red-hot, orange-hot, yellow-hot) to

estimate temperature.

●​ Thyristor Actuation

Thyristor Actuation refers to the use of thyristors (a type of electronic switch) to

control the electric power supplied to heating elements in electric furnaces or
induction heaters.

Key Points:
 ●​ A thyristor is a semiconductor device used to control high voltage or current.​

●​ It allows for precise temperature regulation by adjusting how much power is

delivered.​

●​ Commonly used in modern forging furnaces to improve energy efficiency and

safety.​

Applications:

●​ Electric forging heaters​

●​ Resistance furnaces​

●​ Induction heaters with automatic temperature control​

Common Metalwork Terms and Their Meanings

Term Meaning / Explanation

🔹
Malleability The ability of a metal to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets
without breaking. Example: Gold and aluminum are highly
malleable.

🔹
Ductility The ability of a metal to be drawn or stretched into wire without
breaking. Example: Copper and silver are very ductile.

Elongation The increase in length of a metal when it is pulled or stretched

before breaking. It is a measure of ductility.

🔹
Brittleness The tendency of a material to break or shatter without significant
deformation. Example: Cast iron is brittle.
 🔹
Toughness The ability of a material to absorb energy and withstand shock or
impact without breaking. Example: Mild steel is tough.

🔹
Hardness The resistance of a material to indentation, scratching, or wear.
Example: Hardened steel is very hard.

Strength The ability of a material to resist deformation and breaking under

applied force. There are different types: - Tensile strength (pulling
force) - Compressive strength (squeezing force) - Shear strength
(cutting force)

Plasticity The ability of a metal to undergo permanent deformation without

breaking when force is applied. It combines ductility and
malleability.

🔹
Elasticity The ability of a metal to return to its original shape after the
deforming force is removed. Example: Spring steel.

Conductivity The ability of a metal to conduct heat or electricity. 🔹 Example:

Copper is a good conductor.

Corrosion The ability of a metal to resist rusting or chemical damage. 🔹

Resistance Example: Stainless steel and aluminum have high corrosion
resistance.

These properties help you determine which metal is suitable for forging, welding,
machining, or structural use.

Types of Forging Operations

Forging operations can be classified based on the tools used, temperature, or the way
force is applied to shape the metal.

1. Open Die Forging (Hand Forging)

●​ The metal is placed between flat or simple dies (open dies) and hammered or
pressed until the desired shape is formed.​

●​ It gives the blacksmith more freedom to shape the material.​

Characteristics:

●​ Good for simple shapes.​

●​ Ideal for low quantity and large parts.​

●​ Often done manually or with a power hammer.​

2. Closed Die Forging (Impression Die Forging)

●​ The metal is placed in shaped dies that enclose the workpiece entirely.​

●​ When the dies close, the metal flows into the shape of the die cavity.​

Characteristics:

●​ Produces accurate and complex shapes.​

●​ High production speed.​

●​ Less material waste.​

●​ Used for mass production of automotive parts, tools, etc.​

​ 3. Upset Forging

●​ A forging operation where the length decreases and diameter increases.​

●​ Usually done by holding one end of the metal and applying force to the other.​

Example:

●​ Making bolt heads or valve stems.​

4. Drawn-Out Forging (Drawing or Drawing Down)

●​ The metal is forged to increase its length and reduce its cross-section
(thickness).​

●​ Opposite of upsetting.​

Example:

●​ Making rods or blades longer and thinner.​

5. Drop Forging

●​ Uses a power hammer or press that drops a heavy weight on the metal placed
in closed dies.​

●​ Fast and consistent.​

Features:

●​ High precision.​

●​ Good surface finish.​

●​ Used for mass production of parts like spanners, connecting rods, etc.​

6. Press Forging

●​ Uses gradual squeezing force (instead of hammering) using a mechanical or

hydraulic press.​
 ●​ Done in open or closed dies.​

Advantage:

●​ Better control over metal flow and shape.​

●​ Good for large or flat components.​

7. Roll Forging

●​ The metal is passed between two rotating rolls with shaped grooves to reduce
thickness and increase length.​

Application:

●​ Used to make leaf springs, axles, and rods.​

8. Swaging

●​ A forging operation in which the metal is shaped by repeated blows from rotating
dies.​

●​ Used for tapering or reducing diameter.

9. Coining

●​ A closed-die forging process used for very fine surface details.​

●​ Used in making coins, medals, and precise parts.

Tempering Colors (Heat Treatment Colors)

When steel is heated slowly, a series of oxide colors appear on the surface. These
colors help indicate the temperature of the steel and are used to control hardness
and toughness during tempering.
Tempering Color Chart (Approximate Temperatures)

Color Temperature Use / Description

(°C)

Pale Straw 200°C Very hard – used for razors,

scribers

Dark Straw 220°C Hard – for chisels, drills

Brown 240°C Slightly toughened – for knives

Purple 270°C Tough – used for axes, punches

Dark Blue 290°C Springy – for screwdrivers,

springs

Light Blue 310°C Very springy – for clock springs,

saws

Grey / No 320°C+ Too soft for cutting tools

Color

Important Notes:

●​ These colors appear after polishing the steel surface and slow heating.​

●​ Bright light helps in seeing the color changes.​

 ●​ If you overheat, the color goes beyond blue, and the metal becomes too soft.​

Why It’s Useful in Forging:

●​ Helps you control tool hardness.​

●​ Prevents over-tempering or under-tempering.​

●​ Gives the right balance between hardness and toughness.​

Particle Theory of Matter in Forging

The Particle Theory of Matter states that:

1.​ All matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms or molecules).​

2.​ These particles are constantly in motion.​

3.​ Temperature affects particle motion – higher temperature = faster movement.​

4.​ There are forces of attraction between particles.​

5.​ There are spaces between particles.​

Now, how does this relate to forging?

1. Heating Metal Softens It (Particle Motion Increases)

●​ In forging, metals are heated to high temperatures.​

●​ As temperature rises, the particles (atoms) gain energy and vibrate faster.​

●​ This causes the metal to expand and become less rigid, making it easier to
shape.

2. Forces Between Particles Are Weakened

 ●​ At high temperatures, the attractive forces between metal atoms weaken, so
the particles can slide over each other more easily.​

●​ This explains why hot metal is malleable and can be forged with less force.

3. Forging Reshapes Particle Arrangement

●​ When forging pressure is applied, atoms are forced to shift into a new
arrangement.​

●​ This refines the grain structure, improves strength, and can remove air gaps
or porosity in the metal.

4. Cooling Re-solidifies Structure

●​ As forged metal cools, particle motion decreases, and the particles settle into
a fixed, solid structure.​

●​ If cooled quickly (quenching), atoms "freeze" in place, which can make the metal
hard but brittle (that’s why we temper afterward).

Summary:

Particle Theory Concept Application in Forging

Particles are always moving Heat increases atomic vibration

Temperature affects Higher temperature = more ductile metal

movement

Forces between particles Weakened during heating = easy shaping

Space between particles Increases slightly during expansion

Rearrangement of particles Happens under hammering = new
shape/structure

28-07-25
FOUNDRY:

1. Introduction

The foundry workshop is a section of the manufacturing process where molten metal is
poured into moulds to produce parts of desired shapes. The purpose of this practical
session was to learn the basic steps involved in sand mould preparation using a pattern,
gating system design, and mould finishing. Although no casting was done during this
session, the focus was on mastering the mould-making stage, which is critical for
producing defect-free castings.

2. Objectives

●​ To understand the tools and equipment used in sand moulding.​

●​ To learn the process of preparing a sand mould using a pattern.​

●​ To design and construct the gating system (sprue, runner, riser).​

●​ To appreciate the importance of mould quality in the casting process.

3. Materials and Equipment Used

●​ Pattern: Wooden pattern of [specify shape, e.g., a rectangular block]​

●​ Moulding sand: Green sand (silica sand, clay, and water mixture)​

●​ Moulding box (flask): Cope and drag​

 ●​ Ramrod and hand riddle​

●​ Trowel and spoon​

●​ Sprue pin and riser pin​

●​ Parting powder​

●​ Vents rod​

4. Procedure

Step 1: Preparation of the Drag

●​ The drag (bottom part of the flask) was placed upside down on the moulding
board.​

●​ The pattern was positioned at the center and parting powder was applied to
prevent sticking.​

●​ Moulding sand was sieved over the pattern to cover it with a fine layer.​

●​ Additional sand was added and compacted using the rammer until the drag was
filled.​

Step 2: Turning Over and Preparing the Cope

●​ The drag was inverted carefully, and the cope (top part of the flask) was placed
on top.​

●​ Alignment pins ensured correct positioning.​

●​ Parting powder was applied to the exposed surface of the pattern.​

●​ Sand was added and rammed into the cope until it was fully packed.​

Step 3: Formation of Sprue and Riser

 ●​ Sprue pin and riser pin were inserted into the cope to form vertical channels for
pouring and venting.​

Step 4: Separation and Finishing

●​ The cope and drag were carefully separated.​

●​ The pattern was removed using a gentle tapping method to avoid damaging the
mould cavity.​

●​ The gating system (runner and gate) was cut into the sand connecting the sprue
to the cavity.​

●​ Any loose sand was cleaned from the mould cavity.

5. Observations

●​ The mould cavity was smooth and retained the exact shape of the pattern.​

●​ The sand was adequately compacted, preventing collapse.​

●​ No casting was done due to [state reason, e.g., time constraints or focus on
moulding only].

6. Conclusion

The practical session provided hands-on experience in preparing a sand mould for
metal casting. Even without performing the actual casting process, this exercise
emphasized the importance of mould accuracy, correct compaction, and proper gating
system design to ensure high-quality castings in future sessions.

7. Recommendations

●​ Future sessions should include pouring molten metal into the prepared mould to
complete the casting process.​

●​ Moulds should be inspected for defects (like loose sand or misalignment) before
pouring.​

●​ Use of proper safety gear is essential when handling molten metal.

 29-07-25
WELDING:

Welding Workshop Report

1. Introduction

The welding workshop is an important aspect of manufacturing and fabrication, where

metals are joined by the application of heat, pressure, or both. In this session, no
practical welding was carried out. Instead, we were introduced to the basic concepts,
tools, techniques, and safety precautions related to welding. The session aimed to
familiarize students with the theory and principles of welding before engaging in
hands-on work in future classes.

2. Objectives

●​ To understand the different types of welding processes.​

●​ To learn the types of welding joints and their applications.​

●​ To identify welding tools, equipment, and accessories.​

●​ To study welding positions and their uses.​

●​ To learn about welding polarities and their effects.​

●​ To understand cutting tools and their uses in welding operations.​

●​ To learn basic safety precautions in welding.

3. Topics Covered

3.1 Types of Welding

●​ Arc Welding (Manual Metal Arc, MIG, TIG, etc.)​

●​ Gas Welding (Oxy-acetylene welding)​

●​ Resistance Welding (Spot, Seam, Projection welding)​

●​ Solid-State Welding (Friction welding, Ultrasonic welding)​

3.2 Types of Welding Joints

●​ Butt Joint​

●​ Lap Joint​

●​ Corner Joint​

●​ Tee Joint​

●​ Edge Joint

3.3 Welding Tools and Equipment

●​ Welding Machine​

●​ Electrode Holder​

●​ Welding Cables​

●​ Chipping Hammer​

●​ Wire Brush​

●​ Welding Helmet and Goggles​

●​ Gloves and Apron

3.4 Welding Positions

●​ Flat Position (1G/1F)​

 ●​ Horizontal Position (2G/2F)​

●​ Vertical Position (3G/3F)​

●​ Overhead Position (4G/4F)

3.5 Vice and Its Uses

●​ A vice is a clamping device used to hold workpieces firmly in position during

welding or cutting operations.

3.6 Types of Polarity in Welding

●​ Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) – better penetration.​

●​ Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) – faster deposition.​

●​ Alternating Current (AC) – general-purpose welding.

3.7 Cutting Tools in Welding

●​ Oxy-acetylene cutting torch – for cutting thick metal plates.​

●​ Hacksaw – for manual cutting.

Hacksaw Blade Sizes:

●​ Commonly 250 mm to 300 mm (10 to 12 inches) in length.

 3.8 Table Weld and Grinding

●​ Table Weld – a welding work table designed for holding workpieces during
welding.​

●​ Grinding – used to smooth weld beads or remove excess metal.

3.9 Hammers Used in Welding

●​ Chipping hammer – for removing slag after welding.​

●​ Ball-peen hammer – for shaping and striking metal.

3.10 Safety Precautions in Welding

●​ Always wear protective gear (helmet, gloves, apron, goggles).​

●​ Ensure proper ventilation to avoid inhaling fumes.​

●​ Keep flammable materials away from the work area.​

●​ Avoid looking at the arc without eye protection.​

●​ Check equipment before use to prevent accidents.

3.11 Material Thickness and Heat Source

●​ Material Thickness: Welding technique and electrode size depend on the

thickness of the material.​

●​ Heat Source in Welding: Electric arc (for arc welding) or oxy-acetylene flame
(for gas welding).

4. Observations

●​ This was a theory-based session, so no hands-on welding practice was

performed.​

●​ The session provided a clear foundation for understanding welding before

practical application.

5. Conclusion
The introductory welding workshop provided theoretical knowledge on welding
processes, joints, tools, positions, polarities, cutting tools, and safety measures. This
foundational knowledge is crucial for safe and effective welding practices in future
hands-on training.

6. Recommendations

●​ Subsequent sessions should include practical welding exercises to reinforce the

theory learned.​

●​ Safety checks and demonstrations should precede all practical sessions.​

30-07-25

Machine Tools Workshop Safety Report

1. Introduction

The machine tools workshop contains various machines such as lathes, milling
machines, drilling machines, grinding machines, and shaping machines. These
machines are powerful and potentially dangerous if not handled properly. Workshop
safety ensures the protection of all personnel, prevention of accidents, and proper
maintenance of equipment. This report outlines the safety measures and responsibilities
of administrators, supervisors, and students in the machine tools workshop.

2. Safety Precautions in the Machine Tools Workshop

1.​ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) must be worn at all times (safety
goggles, gloves, protective footwear, and overalls).​

2.​ No loose clothing, jewelry, or long hair near rotating machinery.​

3.​ Check machine condition before use; report any defects immediately.​

4.​ Never operate a machine without proper training and permission.​

5.​ Keep the work area clean and free from obstructions.​
6.​ Do not distract machine operators during operation.​

7.​ Use proper clamping devices to secure workpieces.​

8.​ Switch off and isolate machines before adjusting, cleaning, or changing tools.​

9.​ Follow standard operating procedures (SOPs) for each machine.​

10.​In case of emergency, know the location of emergency stops, fire extinguishers,
and first-aid kits.

3. Roles and Responsibilities

3.1 Administrators

●​ Ensure the workshop is well-equipped, maintained, and compliant with safety

regulations.​

●​ Provide adequate safety equipment and PPE for all users.​

●​ Organize regular safety training sessions.​

●​ Develop and enforce workshop rules and operating procedures.​

●​ Allocate qualified supervisors to oversee workshop operations.​

3.2 Supervisors

●​ Monitor all activities in the workshop to ensure safety compliance.​

●​ Provide instruction and demonstrations before students operate machines.​

●​ Inspect machines regularly for faults or wear.​

●​ Report accidents or unsafe conditions immediately.​

●​ Enforce the use of PPE and correct operating procedures.​

●​ Maintain discipline and order in the workshop.​

 3.3 Students

●​ Attend all safety briefings and comply with workshop rules.​

●​ Wear appropriate PPE at all times.​

●​ Operate machines only under supervision and with permission.​

●​ Avoid horseplay or distractions in the workshop.​

●​ Report any damage or unsafe condition to the supervisor immediately.​

●​ Keep work areas clean after use.

4. Conclusion

Safety in the machine tools workshop is a shared responsibility between administrators,

supervisors, and students. Administrators ensure resources and policies are in place,
supervisors enforce and guide safe operations, and students follow all safety rules.
Strict adherence to these measures prevents accidents, prolongs equipment life, and
ensures an efficient learning environment.