SCI 801 LECTURE NOTE

MODULE I: ICT SKILLS FOR RESEARCH

1. Introduction to ICT in Research

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a critical role in modern scientific
research. At the postgraduate level, digital tools are essential for data management, collaboration,
literature access, statistical analysis, and publication. ICT competencies enhance research
productivity, data accuracy, and communication with global scientific communities.

1.1 Role of ICT in Scientific Research

ICT contributes to research across the entire research lifecycle, from topic selection and literature
review to data analysis and dissemination. Below are key ways ICT supports scientific research:

1. Efficient Literature Search and Review

o Access to digital libraries, databases (e.g., PubMed, ScienceDirect), and search
engines (e.g., Google Scholar) facilitates comprehensive literature reviews.
2. Data Collection and Storage
o Use of digital forms (e.g., Google Forms, REDCap) for survey-based research.
o Electronic lab notebooks and databases for experimental records.
3. Data Analysis and Interpretation
o Software tools like Excel, SPSS, R, and Python allow for quick computation,
statistical testing, and data visualization.
4. Collaboration and Communication
o Tools like Zoom, Google Docs, and Microsoft Teams support remote teamwork
and knowledge sharing.
5. Research Dissemination
o Online submission portals for journals and preprints.
o Digital platforms for academic networking (e.g., ResearchGate, Academia.edu).
6. Project Management and Time Tracking
 o Tools like Trello, Notion, or Microsoft Planner assist with organizing tasks and
timelines.
7. Reproducibility and Open Science
o ICT enables the sharing of code, data, and protocols via repositories like GitHub
or Figshare.

1.2 Importance of Digital Literacy for Students

Digital literacy refers to the ability to confidently and effectively use digital tools, platforms, and
applications relevant to academic and research work. For students in biochemistry and related
disciplines, digital literacy is indispensable. Here’s why:

1. Competent Data Handling

o Understanding how to enter, clean, analyze, and interpret data using digital tools.
2. Enhanced Research Efficiency
o Digital skills save time and effort, allowing for automated analyses, literature
management, and referencing.
3. Quality and Accuracy
o Digital tools reduce manual errors, especially in statistical computations and
result presentations.
4. Adaptation to Global Standards
o Familiarity with tools like Mendeley for references or Excel for charts ensures
students can meet international publication standards.
5. Professional Development
o Employers and research institutions expect graduates to be proficient in using ICT
for problem-solving, reporting, and data analysis.
6. Ethical and Informed Use of Information
o Being digitally literate includes understanding the credibility of sources, avoiding
plagiarism, and respecting data privacy.
2. Spreadsheets (e.g., Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets)

Spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets are essential ICT tools used in
scientific research for data entry, cleaning, analysis, visualization, and reporting. Their user-
friendly interface, wide accessibility, and powerful functionalities make them a foundational
digital skill for every postgraduate student.

2.1. Data Entry and Formatting

Data entry involves organizing research observations, survey responses, laboratory

measurements, or experimental results into structured tabular formats.

Best practices for data entry:

• Use clear and consistent column headers (e.g., "Patient ID", "Glucose Level", "Treatment
Group").
• Enter data in rows, with each row representing a unique case or observation.
• Avoid merged cells or formatting that hinders analysis.

Data formatting ensures that the data is readable and correctly interpreted by both humans and
software:

• Apply data types (e.g., number, date, text) correctly.

• Use conditional formatting to highlight patterns, such as outliers or negative values.
• Freeze panes to keep headers visible while scrolling.

2.2. Basic Formulas and Functions

Spreadsheets provide a wide range of built-in formulas that support descriptive and inferential
analysis.

• AVERAGE: Computes the mean of a range.

o Example: =AVERAGE(B2:B10)
• STDEV: Calculates the standard deviation of a dataset.
 o Example: =STDEV.P(B2:B10)
• IF: Returns a value based on a logical test.
o Example: =IF(C2>140, "High", "Normal")
• COUNTIF: Counts cells that meet a specific condition.
o Example: =COUNTIF(D2:D20, "Positive")

These functions allow researchers to quickly analyze, categorize, and interpret datasets.

2.3. Charts and Graphs for Data Presentation

Visualizing data helps communicate research findings more effectively. Excel and Google Sheets
support multiple types of charts:

• Bar and Column Charts: For comparing quantities across categories (e.g., WBC counts
by treatment group).
• Line Graphs: For showing trends over time (e.g., temperature fluctuations over 7 days).
• Pie Charts: For showing proportions (e.g., blood group distribution in a sample).
• Scatter Plots: For exploring relationships (e.g., correlation between weight and
cholesterol levels).

Tips:

• Always label your axes and provide legends.

• Use appropriate chart types based on data characteristics.

Steps to Insert a Chart in Excel or Google Sheets

1. Select the data range.

2. Click Insert > Chart.
3. Choose appropriate chart type.
4. Customize titles, axis labels, and legends.
2.4. Pivot Tables and Filtering for Large Datasets

Pivot tables are powerful tools for summarizing and analyzing large datasets:

• Automatically aggregate data (e.g., compute average values per treatment group).
• Rearrange data dimensions (e.g., compare outcomes across multiple categories).
• Use slicers and filters to explore subgroups (e.g., male vs. female).

How to Create a Pivot Table (Excel)

1. Select your data.

2. Go to Insert > PivotTable.
3. Drag and drop fields into Rows, Columns, Values, and Filters.

Filtering allows researchers to:

• View only relevant data (e.g., patients above 60 years).

• Search for missing or specific values (e.g., "Not Detected").
• Create dynamic views for comparison.

3. Statistical Packages Overview

3.1 Introduction to Statistical Software

Statistical software packages are digital tools used to perform data analysis, hypothesis testing,
and graphical presentation. They streamline the process of handling large datasets and applying
statistical techniques.
Common Statistical Software Tools Used in Scientific Research:

Software Description Best For

SPSS (Statistical Package Menu-driven, user-friendly Medical and social sciences

for the Social Sciences) statistical software research

Free, open-source programming Advanced statistical modeling

R
language for statistics and reproducible research

Python (Pandas, SciPy, General-purpose programming Flexible data analysis,

Statsmodels) language with powerful libraries machine learning, automation

Intuitive tool for biomedical Laboratory research, dose-

GraphPad Prism
statistics and graphing response curves, clinical data

3.2 Choosing Appropriate Software for Analysis

The choice of statistical software depends on several factors:

Factor Considerations

Complexity of For basic analysis, SPSS or GraphPad is suitable. For advanced modeling,
Analysis use R or Python.

Beginners may prefer SPSS or GraphPad. Programmers can use R or

User Skill Level
Python.

Nature of Clinical and laboratory data → GraphPad or SPSS; Experimental and

Research computational biology → R/Python.

Availability and R and Python are free and open-source. SPSS and GraphPad require
Cost licenses.
Recommendation:

For students:

• Use SPSS or GraphPad for immediate, guided statistical needs.

• Learn R or Python for long-term flexibility and research independence.

3.3 Basic Statistical Analysis (Mean, SD, t-test, ANOVA)

Each software supports a core set of analyses. Here’s a quick overview with examples applicable
to biomedical data:

1. Mean and Standard Deviation

Used to describe the central tendency and variability of numeric data (e.g., enzyme levels,
glucose concentration).

Tool How to Calculate

SPSS Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Descriptives

R mean(data$glucose), sd(data$glucose)

Python df['glucose'].mean(), df['glucose'].std()

GraphPad Enter data > Analyze > Descriptive statistics

2. t-test (Student's t-test)

Used to compare means between two groups (e.g., treated vs. control).

Tool Example

SPSS Analyze > Compare Means > Independent-Samples T Test

R t.test(group1, group2)

Python scipy.stats.ttest_ind(group1, group2)

GraphPad t-test under “Column analyses”

3. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

Used to compare means across more than two groups (e.g., control, low dose, high dose).

Tool Example

SPSS Analyze > Compare Means > One-Way ANOVA

R aov(value ~ group, data=dataset)

Python stats.f_oneway(group1, group2, group3)

GraphPad Choose “ANOVA” under group comparison

Summary Table: Comparison of Statistical Software
Feature SPSS R Python GraphPad

Ease of Use High Moderate Moderate Very High

Requires
No Yes Yes No
Programming

Graph Quality Moderate High High Very High

Licensed (academic
Cost Licensed Free Free
discounts)

Clinical Lab data, curve

Advanced research, Automation,
Best For research, social fitting, dose-
reproducibility data science
science response

4. Internet Technology for Research

Internet technologies provide modern researchers with global access to scientific resources,
collaborative tools, and publication platforms. Students must develop information literacy — the
ability to search, evaluate, and manage scientific knowledge online effectively.

4.1 Academic Databases

These platforms index scholarly literature and provide access to peer-reviewed articles, clinical
trials, conference papers, and theses. Each has its strengths.
Key Databases for Scientific Research:

Platform Description Use in Biochemistry

A free resource from the U.S. National

Library of Medicine with over 35 million Searching biomedical and
PubMed
citations from MEDLINE and life sciences clinical research papers.
journals.

A broad academic search engine covering

Google Finding cross-disciplinary or
various disciplines including journals, books,
Scholar open-access materials.
theses, and patents.

A professional network for researchers to Connecting with authors,

ResearchGate share publications, ask questions, and requesting full-text articles, or
collaborate. informal peer feedback.

Tip: Use Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) and quotation marks to refine searches:

• "oxidative stress" AND "liver enzymes"

• "plant extract" OR "phytochemicals"

4.2 Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and Citation Managers

What is a DOI?

A DOI is a unique, permanent identifier assigned to scholarly documents (e.g., articles, datasets).
It ensures that you can always locate the publication even if the journal's web address changes.

• Example: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2022.105385
Citation Managers

Citation/reference management tools help organize and format your sources correctly.

Tool Features

Zotero Open-source, browser-integrated, allows note-taking, tagging, and sharing.

Mendeley Offers PDF annotation, cloud backup, and social networking among researchers.

Benefits:

• Automatically generate in-text citations and bibliographies.

• Export references in multiple styles (APA, Vancouver, etc.).
• Sync references across devices.

4.3 Avoiding Predatory Journals

Predatory journals exploit the open-access publishing model without proper peer review,
editorial standards, or transparency.

How to Spot a Predatory Journal:

Red Flag Explanation

Very short peer review time (1–2 days) Genuine reviews take time.

No editorial board or fake members Always check editorial transparency.

Poor website design and grammar Indicates unprofessionalism.

Charges high fees without disclosing them upfront Ethical journals disclose APCs.

Journal not listed in DOAJ, Scopus, or PubMed Check journal indexing status.
Tools to Verify Journal Legitimacy:

• DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals)

• Think. Check. Submit. (https://thinkchecksubmit.org/)
• Scopus or Web of Science indexing

4.4 Use of Institutional Resources and VPNs

Universities often subscribe to journals and academic databases. However, off-campus access
may be restricted due to IP licensing.

Solution: Virtual Private Network (VPN)

• A VPN routes your internet traffic through the university's server, granting access as if
you were on campus.
• Fountain University students can use the university’s VPN (if provided) or institutional
login for publishers (e.g., JSTOR, ScienceDirect).

Other Institutional Resources:

• University library portals

• Thesis repositories
• Subscribed tools (Turnitin, Grammarly Premium, etc.)

Summary and Practical Tips:

Task Tool

Find recent articles on oxidative stress PubMed, Google Scholar

Store and cite references for your thesis Zotero, Mendeley

Confirm journal quality DOAJ, Think. Check. Submit

Access ScienceDirect off-campus University VPN

 MODULE II: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5. Principles of Scientific Research

Scientific research is the structured and logical process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
information to answer a question or solve a problem. At the MSc level, understanding the
underlying principles of scientific research helps students approach their work with
methodological rigour and critical thinking.

5.1 Characteristics of Scientific Research

Scientific research is guided by specific principles that distinguish it from other forms of inquiry.
These characteristics ensure the quality, credibility, and reproducibility of scientific knowledge.

Characteristic Explanation

Research follows an organized sequence of steps, from problem identification

Systematic
to conclusion. No steps are skipped or done haphazardly.

Conclusions are based on observable and measurable evidence, not on personal

Objective
feelings or bias.

Other researchers should be able to repeat the study and obtain similar results,
Replicable
given the same methods and conditions.

Empirical Data must be based on real-world observations or experiments.

The process and reasoning behind the study must follow clear and rational
Logical
steps.

The methodology and findings are clearly documented and made accessible for
Transparent
review or critique.
Example: A biochemistry student studying the effect of a plant extract on liver enzymes should
follow a clear experimental design, use measurable outcomes, and report findings without bias.

5.2 Types of Research

Scientific research can be classified based on its purpose, approach, or design. These categories
often overlap.

A. By Purpose

Type Definition Example in Biochemistry

Basic Seeks to expand knowledge without Investigating the role of a newly

Research immediate practical use. discovered enzyme in metabolism.

Applied Testing the efficacy of a herbal extract on

Solves specific, practical problems.
Research blood glucose levels.

B. By Approach

Type Definition Example

Quantitative Uses numerical data and Measuring the concentration of ALT and
Research statistical methods. AST enzymes in liver tissue.

Qualitative Explores non-numerical data Interviewing patients on their perceptions

Research (opinions, experiences). of herbal therapy.

Note: Many MSc-level theses adopt a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and
quantitative data.
C. By Design

Type Definition Example

Researcher manipulates
Experimental Administering different doses of a drug
variables under controlled
Research to rats and measuring creatinine levels.
conditions.

Observational Researcher observes without Measuring uric acid levels in diabetic

Research intervening. patients over time.

Comparison Table: Types of Research

Criteria Basic Applied Experimental Observational

Goal Advance theory Solve a problem Test cause-effect Describe/analyze trends

Intervention Often none Often yes Yes No

Genetic Drug efficacy Lab-controlled Field study of enzyme

Example
mapping study trial levels

Practical Relevance to Students

• Understanding research types helps in selecting appropriate methodology for a thesis.

• Experimental design is often preferred in Biochemistry due to lab-based data collection.
• Objectivity and replicability are critical for publishing in peer-reviewed journals.
Summary

• Scientific research is systematic, objective, and replicable.

• It can be classified by purpose (basic vs. applied), approach (quantitative vs.
qualitative), and design (experimental vs. observational).
• A solid understanding of these principles prepares students to undertake meaningful,
valid, and ethical research.

6. Problem Identification and Research Topic Selection

6.1 Identifying Gaps in Knowledge

One of the most critical steps in initiating scientific research is identifying a problem worth
investigating. At the postgraduate level, research must go beyond duplication of existing work
— it should aim to address gaps, solve unsolved questions, or improve upon current knowledge
or methods.

What Is a Knowledge Gap?

A knowledge gap is an area where:

• Existing research is insufficient or outdated.

• Results from previous studies are conflicting.
• There are unresolved challenges in theory or practice.
• A specific population, context, or variable has not been studied.

How to Identify Gaps

• Literature review: Analyze recent articles, reviews, and meta-analyses in your area.
• Discussion with supervisors/experts: They may point out areas of need or priority.
• Conference abstracts and theses: Discover cutting-edge issues being discussed.
• Observation from practice: If you’re a lab scientist or field researcher, practical issues
often point to worthy research areas.
Example: You review recent studies on the antioxidant effects of Moringa oleifera in diabetic
rats but discover that no research has assessed its effect on kidney enzyme levels. That gap
becomes a possible research focus.

6.2 Feasibility and Relevance of a Research Problem

Even if a gap exists, not all gaps are suitable for a thesis. You must assess:

A. Feasibility

Ask:

• Do I have access to equipment, reagents, or study participants?

• Is the study manageable within the time and budget constraints of my programme?
• Do I have the technical skills or support to handle the methods involved?

B. Relevance

Ask:

• Will the research solve a real-world or scientific problem?

• Is it aligned with current trends in biochemistry or biomedical science?
• Could it lead to a publishable result or further research?
6.3 Examples of Poorly vs Well-Defined Research Problems

Understanding how to formulate a clear and focused research problem is essential.

Poorly Defined
Why It’s Problematic Improved Version
Problem

"What is the effect of Artemisia afra extract on

"I want to study
Too broad, lacks focus. hepatic enzyme activity in Plasmodium berghei-
malaria."
infected mice?"

Unspecified "Does aqueous garlic extract reduce serum LDL

"Does garlic help
population, unclear levels in hypercholesterolemic rats over a 21-day
with cholesterol?"
measurement. period?"

"Does daily supplementation of 100 mg/kg

"Is Vitamin C good Vague; what aspect of
Vitamin C enhance white blood cell count in
for immunity?" immunity? What dose?
immunocompromised mice?"

Key Tips for Students

• Narrow your research scope — research should aim for depth, not breadth.
• Always state:
o What you want to study (the phenomenon or variable),
o Whom you want to study (the population or sample),
o Why it matters (the gap or practical significance),
o How you’ll investigate (method or approach).
Summary

• A good research project starts with identifying a relevant, feasible problem.

• This involves literature review, critical observation, and expert consultation.
• Poorly defined research problems are vague, unfocused, or impractical.
• A well-defined problem is specific, measurable, and clearly contextualized.

7. Formulating Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

7.1 Characteristics of Good Research Questions

A research question defines what a researcher wants to understand, explain, or predict. It gives
direction to the entire research process — including the objectives, hypothesis, methodology, and
analysis.

The SMART Criteria

A good research question should be:

S Specific – Focused and clearly stated.

M Measurable – It must involve observable or quantifiable outcomes.

A Achievable – Realistic within the time and resource limits of the project.

R Relevant – Aligned with the research field and current scientific issues.

T Time-bound – Answerable within the time frame available for the project.

Example:
Poor: “What are the health benefits of bitter leaf?”
Improved: “Does Vernonia amygdalina extract reduce serum ALT and AST levels in CCl₄-
induced hepatotoxic rats within a 14-day treatment period?”
7.2 Research Objectives

Objectives are derived from the research question and define the goals of the study. They are
often divided into:

• General Objective: Broad aim of the study.

• Specific Objectives: Concrete steps to achieve the general goal. They usually begin with
verbs like determine, assess, compare, analyze, etc.

Example:
General Objective: To evaluate the hepatoprotective effects of Moringa oleifera in rats exposed
to acetaminophen toxicity.
Specific Objectives:

1. To determine serum ALT and AST levels in treated and untreated groups.
2. To compare liver histology between groups.
3. To assess dose-dependent changes in antioxidant enzyme levels.

7.3 Formulating Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a formal statement predicting the outcome of a study. It must be testable and
falsifiable.

There are different types of hypotheses:

A. Null Hypothesis (H₀):

• States that there is no difference or no effect.

• It is the default position that statistical tests seek to reject.

Example:
H₀: There is no significant difference in ALT levels between rats treated with extract and
untreated rats.
B. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Ha):

• Suggests that a difference or effect exists.

• It is accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected.

Example:
H₁: Treatment with the extract significantly reduces ALT levels compared to untreated rats.

C. Directional Hypothesis:

• Specifies the expected direction of the relationship or effect (e.g., increase or decrease).

H₁: Rats treated with extract will have lower ALT levels than untreated rats.

D. Non-directional Hypothesis:

• States that a difference exists, but does not specify the direction.

H₁: There is a difference in ALT levels between treated and untreated rats.

7.4 Examples and Writing Practice

Example 1:

• Research Question: Does caffeine administration affect short-term memory in adult

mice?
• General Objective: To investigate the effect of caffeine on short-term memory.
• Specific Objectives:
1. To measure memory performance using maze test scores.
2. To compare scores between caffeine-treated and control groups.
• Null Hypothesis (H₀): Caffeine has no significant effect on short-term memory.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Caffeine significantly affects short-term memory.
Summary

• Good research questions guide the study and meet SMART criteria.
• Objectives break down the research into achievable tasks.
• Hypotheses are predictions that statistical analysis will test.
• Students should practice linking questions, objectives, and hypotheses in a consistent and
logical way.

8. Precision and Accuracy of Estimates

8.1 Definitions and Differences

In scientific research, particularly in laboratory-based disciplines like Biochemistry, precision

and accuracy are fundamental to obtaining trustworthy and valid results. These terms, though
related, are not interchangeable.

Accuracy

• Definition: Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
• It answers the question: “Are we measuring the correct value?”

Example: If a known standard glucose solution is 100 mg/dL, and your result is 98 mg/dL, then
it is accurate.

Precision

• Definition: Precision refers to the consistency or repeatability of a set of measurements.

• It answers the question: “Can we get the same result repeatedly under the same
conditions?”

Example: If you measure the same blood sample multiple times and get: 101, 101.2, 100.8, and
101.1 mg/dL, your results are precise.
Key Difference:
A result can be precise but not accurate (e.g., always wrong in the same way) or accurate but
not precise (e.g., sometimes correct, sometimes not).

Example

Accurate + Precise Results are close to each other and to the true value.

Accurate Only Values vary but average is close to true value.

Precise Only Consistent results, but all far from true value.

Neither Inconsistent and wrong results.

8.2 Types of Errors in Measurement

Every measurement is subject to some degree of error. Understanding the source of error is
essential to improving both precision and accuracy.

A. Systematic Errors

• Definition: These are consistent, repeatable errors due to flawed equipment,

calibration, or bias in methodology.
• Effect: Affects accuracy.
• Examples:
o Using a faulty pH meter that always reads 0.5 units too high.
o Weighing samples with an uncalibrated balance.

Solution: Calibration, standardization, and control experiments.

B. Random Errors

• Definition: These are unpredictable fluctuations in measurement due to uncontrollable

variables.
• Effect: Affects precision.
• Examples:
o Variation in pipetting by different users.
o Environmental changes like temperature or vibration.

Solution: Use of replicates, averaging multiple readings, better lab protocols.

8.3 Relevance in Experimental Research

Precision and accuracy are critical for data quality and interpretation, especially in
biochemical and clinical research.

Applications in Laboratory Settings

• Quantitative Assays: Ensuring repeatable and accurate enzyme activity or concentration

readings (e.g., ALT, creatinine).
• Instrument Calibration: Regular calibration improves accuracy of spectrophotometers,
balances, or ELISA readers.
• Good Laboratory Practice (GLP): SOPs that minimize variability and bias.

Data Collection and Statistical Estimates

• The standard deviation reflects precision.

• The mean is a measure affected by accuracy and systematic bias.
• If a study lacks precision, statistical confidence is low, increasing the risk of Type II error
(false negative).
• If a study lacks accuracy, conclusions can be wrong, even if statistically significant.
Summary
Concept Definition Affects Solution

Calibration, control
Accuracy Closeness to the true value Validity
samples

Precision Consistency of repeated measurements Reliability Replication, SOPs

Systematic Calibration, method

Consistent, directional error Accuracy
Error review

Fluctuations due to chance or external

Random Error Precision Replication, training
factors
 MODULE III: RESEARCH ORGANIZATION & COMMUNICATION

9. Organization of Scientific Research

9.1 Research Planning and Time Management

Scientific research, especially at the postgraduate level, demands structured planning, effective
time use, and adaptability. Proper research planning helps prevent last-minute rushes, improves
data quality, and ensures research deadlines (e.g., thesis defense) are met.

Key Elements of Research Planning:

1. Clearly Defined Objectives: What is the research trying to achieve?

2. Phased Tasks: Breaking down the project into smaller, manageable parts (e.g., literature
review, data collection, analysis, writing).
3. Setting Milestones: Establishing checkpoints to track progress.
4. Allocating Time: Estimating how long each phase should take based on scope and
complexity.

Gantt Chart

• A Gantt chart is a visual project management tool that outlines tasks on a timeline.
• It helps track what needs to be done, when, and by whom.
Example (Simplified Gantt Chart):

Task Jan Feb Mar Apr May

Literature Review ✅ ✅

Proposal Development ✅ ✅

Ethics Approval ✅

Data Collection ✅ ✅

Data Analysis ✅ ✅

Writing & Submission ✅

9.2 Teamwork in Research Projects

Modern scientific research is often collaborative. Even for students completing individual theses,
teamwork plays a role in:

• Interdisciplinary input: e.g., working with statisticians or lab technologists.

• Peer collaboration: Reviewing each other's work, data collection support.
• Supervisor-Student Dynamics: Following guidance while being independent.

Attributes of Effective Research Teams:

• Clear role allocation: Each member understands their responsibility.

• Good communication: Regular updates and feedback.
• Respect for diversity: Skills, perspectives, and academic strengths.
• Conflict resolution: Early and respectful handling of disagreements.
Real Example in Biochemistry:
A thesis on oxidative stress in diabetic patients may involve a clinician (for patient recruitment),
a biochemist (for assays), and a statistician (for data analysis).

9.3 Ethical Considerations and Approvals

All research involving human subjects, biological samples, or sensitive data must be
conducted ethically. At the postgraduate level, students are expected to comply with institutional
and national ethical standards.

Core Ethical Principles in Scientific Research:

1. Respect for Persons: Informed consent, voluntary participation.

2. Beneficence: Minimize harm and maximize benefits.
3. Justice: Fair selection of research participants.

Types of Ethical Approval:

• Institutional Review Board (IRB) / Health Research Ethics Committee (HREC):

o Required for clinical/laboratory research involving human participants.
o Submit a proposal including consent forms, methodology, and risk mitigation.
• Animal Ethics Approval (if applicable):
o Mandatory for studies involving animal testing.

Ethical Red Flags to Avoid:

• Data fabrication or falsification

• Plagiarism
• Lack of consent or unethical sample collection
• Failure to maintain participant confidentiality
Summary Table
Component Description Tools/Examples

Structuring work into phases, estimating

Research Planning Gantt chart, timeline checklist
time

Time Management Avoiding delay and improving workflow Milestones, to-do lists

Defined roles, regular

Teamwork Collaborative efforts for effective research
meetings

Securing permission for human/animal

Ethical Approvals IRB/HREC applications
studies

Good Ethical Integrity in data, methods, authorship, and Informed consent,

Practice consent confidentiality

10. Scientific Report and Thesis Writing

10.1 Structure of a Scientific Report or Thesis

A well-structured scientific report or thesis reflects the research process and communicates
findings clearly. The standard structure typically follows the IMRaD format: Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion, along with supporting sections.

1. Abstract

• A concise summary of the research.

• Should include: background, objectives, methods, key results, and conclusion.
• Usually limited to 250–300 words.
2. Introduction

• Describes background and significance of the problem.

• States research objectives or questions.
• Ends with the hypothesis or research aim.

3. Literature Review

• Summarizes existing knowledge relevant to the topic.

• Identifies research gaps.
• Justifies why the current study is necessary.

4. Methodology

• Describes how the study was conducted.

• Includes study design, data collection methods, sample size, instruments, and data
analysis techniques.
• Should be detailed enough for replication.

5. Results

• Presents findings without interpretation.

• Uses tables, charts, or figures for clarity.
• Avoids repetition between text and visuals.

6. Discussion

• Interprets results in the context of the literature.

• Highlights implications, limitations, and possible future directions.
• Should be critical and reflective, not just descriptive.

7. Conclusion

• Summarizes major findings.

• Answers the research question.
 • May offer recommendations or practical implications.

8. References

• All cited works must be listed.

• Use a consistent citation style (APA or Vancouver).

10.2 Citation Formats: APA and Vancouver

Citations are essential to give credit to sources and avoid plagiarism.

APA Style (Author–Date Format)

• Used in social and health sciences.

• In-text: (Oluwaseun, 2022)
• Reference: Oluwaseun, T. A. (2022). Biochemical pathways in disease. Ibadan
University Press.

Vancouver Style (Numbered Format)

• Common in biomedical and clinical sciences.

• In-text: Superscript or bracketed numbers like [1] or ¹
• Reference:

1. Okeke EC. Enzyme kinetics in metabolic disorders. Lagos Med J. 2020;12(3):123–30.

Students should use the style recommended by their department or supervisor.

10.3 Tables, Figures, and Legends

Tables

• Organize numerical data or categorical comparisons.

• Must be numbered (e.g., Table 1).
• Include a brief, descriptive title.
Figures

• Include graphs, charts, diagrams, or photographs.

• Must be labeled clearly with axes, units, and legends.
• Each figure should have a caption below it.

Legends

• Explain symbols, colors, or abbreviations used in figures/tables.

• Should allow interpretation without referring to the main text.

10.4 Common Mistakes to Avoid in Thesis Writing

Mistake Why It’s a Problem Remedy

Ethical breach, academic Use citation managers (e.g., Zotero,

Plagiarism
misconduct Mendeley); paraphrase properly

Poor Structure Confuses readers Follow IMRaD and departmental guidelines

Makes work look

Inconsistent Citations Stick to one citation format throughout
unprofessional

Overuse of Jargon Reduces clarity Keep language precise and accessible

Conflicting info between

Data-Text Mismatch Cross-check results during editing
tables and text

No Discussion of Appears biased or

Acknowledge limitations openly
Limitations incomplete

Typos and Grammar

Reduces credibility Use grammar tools; seek peer review
Errors
11. Presentation of Research Findings

Effectively communicating your research is a vital skill for every student. Whether you're
defending a thesis, speaking at a scientific conference, or preparing a poster, the way you present
your findings greatly influences how they’re received.

11.1 PowerPoint Best Practices

PowerPoint presentations are widely used in academic settings to share research outcomes during
thesis defenses, seminars, or conferences.

Design Principles

• Keep it Simple: Avoid overloading slides with text. Use bullet points or keywords (not
full paragraphs).
• Consistent Formatting: Stick to one or two fonts. Use readable sizes (at least 24 pt for
body text).
• High-Quality Visuals: Use clear graphs, images, and diagrams to explain results.
• Avoid Distractions: Limit animations, sounds, and excessive colors.

Structure of a Good Research Slide Deck

1. Title Slide: Include your name, institution, research title, and date.
2. Background: Provide context; state the research problem and objectives.
3. Methods: Briefly outline how the study was conducted.
4. Results: Present key findings using tables, charts, or graphs.
5. Discussion/Conclusion: Interpret findings and highlight implications.
6. References: Cite major sources (optional in short presentations).
7. Acknowledgments: Recognize supervisors, collaborators, or funders.
Presentation Tips

• Practice out loud and time yourself.

• Face the audience, not the screen.
• Explain graphs and figures clearly.
• Anticipate possible questions.

11.2 Oral Defense Preparation

The oral defense is a formal academic exercise where you present and defend your thesis before
a panel.

Objectives

• Demonstrate mastery of your research topic.

• Justify your methodology and conclusions.
• Show your ability to engage critically with your findings.

Before the Defense

• Know your thesis inside out.

• Prepare slides that align closely with your report.
• Practice with peers or mentors.
• Review potential questions: Why this topic? Why this method? What are your
limitations?

During the Defense

• Stay calm and professional even when challenged.

• Be honest: If you don’t know an answer, say so respectfully.
• Maintain academic tone but speak clearly and confidently.

After the Defense

• Take note of corrections and feedback.

 • Revise your work as instructed by your panel or supervisor.

11.3 Scientific Poster Presentations

Poster presentations are visual summaries of your research used at academic conferences and
research fairs.

Purpose

• Present complex research simply and attractively.

• Facilitate informal discussions with peers and experts.

Poster Design Elements

Section What to Include

Title Concise and descriptive. Include your name and institution.

Introduction Brief background and research objectives.

Methods Key techniques and experimental design.

Results Graphs, tables, or images of your findings.

Conclusion Summary of findings and significance.

References & Acknowledgments Cite key sources and thank contributors.

Design Tips

• Use columns to guide the reader’s eye.

• Keep text minimal – about 20–30% of the poster should be words.
• Use high-contrast colors and readable fonts.
• Make sure the poster is readable from 1–2 meters away.
Presenting Your Poster

• Be ready to explain your research in 2–3 minutes.

• Engage passersby with a friendly introduction.
• Use a laser pointer (if allowed) or hand gestures to highlight key areas.

Final Notes for Students

• Your ability to present your research professionally affects how it’s perceived — even by
expert audiences.
• Develop clarity, confidence, and visual communication skills.
• Start preparing early — good presentations are designed, not just written.