School of Agriculture and Allied Sciences

Volume 5, Issue I, August, 2025

Crop Residue Management

 This constant movement of carbon through input,
transformation and release is known as soil carbon
Feedback Loops in Climate-
dynamics. Soil Carbon Interactions
It is a natural cycle where the outcome of a process
Key factors influencing soil loops back to influence the system itself. These loops
can be positive, where the effect intensifies the original
carbon dynamics change and negative, where it reduces or balances
1. Temperature: Rising temperatures increase the impact.
microbial activity, which accelerates the
l The positive feedback loop- amplifies climate
decomposition of organic matter and releases more
change.
CO₂ into the atmosphere.
Permafrost Thaw: Permafrost is ground (including
2. Soil Type and Texture: Clay soils (fine- soil, gravel and organic matter) that remains frozen
textured) are better at protecting organic carbon. for at least two consecutive years and melts due to
Because clay particles bind tightly with organic rise in temperature and releases carbon dioxide which
matter, forming stable aggregates that protect accelerates global warming. This phenomenon is
carbon from microbial decomposition. Sandy soils called as permafrost thawing. It takes place in Northern
(coarse-textured) have large pores and less surface hemisphere (Russia, Canada, Alaska, Greenland).
area for carbon binding, making them less effective This phenomenon leads to warmer climate and
at storing carbon. longer growing seasons. It has negative effects too-
3. Vegetation Cover: More vegetation leads to permafrost holds 1500 billion tons of carbon dioxide,
higher root biomass and turnover, which increases double the amount currently in the atmosphere. It is a
carbon input into the soil. Root turnover is the bomb that can speed up climate change which is hard
continuous process of dying and renewal of roots to reverse.
thar contributes significantly to soil carbon storage. l Negative Feedback Loops – Mitigate Climate
4. Root Exudates: Living roots release sugars and Change
amino acids into the soil, feeding microbes. These Wetland Restoration: It is the process of bringing
microbes convert root exudates into stable organic degraded wetlands back to their functioning state.
matter that can persist in soil for years there by Wetlands such as marshes, swamps are recreated into
enhancing soil carbon storage. Additionally, dying waterlogged conditions that slow down decomposition
roots decompose and of plant material. In these saturated soils, the lack
contribute to soil organic matter, some of which of oxygen prevents microbes from breaking down
becomes humus. organic matter quickly allowing carbon to accumulate.
By restoring wetlands, it helps in slowing down global
warming and stabilizing the climate system
Carbon Release
Mechanisms Soil Carbon Monitoring and
l Decomposition: Soil microorganisms (e.g., bacteria
and fungi) break down organic material using
Modelling
enzymes. During this process, carbon is used as Monitoring involves measuring soil organic carbon
an energy source and released as CO₂ through levels across different landscapes. Modelling uses
microbial respiration. monitoring data to predict future carbon trends under
various climate and land-use scenarios. These tools
l Land Use Change and Soil Disturbance: Human guide sustainable practices like cover cropping,
activities such as deforestation, urbanization and reduced tillage, and reforestation to enhance soil
tillage disrupt soil structure, exposing stored carbon carbon sequestration.
and releasing it into the atmosphere.
l Drought and Flooding: During drought, the dry Organic Waste
soils crack and microbial activity declines, reducing
carbon input and increasing carbon loss through Management and
erosion. On the other hand during floods, the topsoil
containing rich in organic carbon, is washed away,
Composting
degrading soil fertility and nutrient content. These are effective methods for increasing soil carbon
sequestration while reducing the need for landfills that
hold municipal and industrial solid wastes. Instead of
deposing organic waste, composting transforms it into

14 The Neotia University (TNU)

stable carbon rich organic matter through a controlled l No-Tillage or Reduced Tillage: Minimizes soil
breakdown process. When added to soil, compost disturbance, helping to preserve stored carbon. In
improves soil structure, nutrient availability and water Punjab and Haryana, zero-tillage wheat cultivation
holding capacity. It also enhances microbial activity and after rice harvest is gaining popularity, reducing
nutrient cycling which promotes carbon sequestration. CO₂ emissions from ploughing.
Composting also supports land restoration preserves
l Cover Cropping: Involves planting species like
soil organic matter. During composting, organic
clover, rye, or legumes to protect soil, fix nitrogen,
solid waste undergoes microbial decomposition.
and enhance organic matter. In the USA, winter rye
Microorganism breakdown proteins and fats releases
is widely used to build soil carbon and improve soil
ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and organic acids.
health.
As composting progress, microbes degrade more
refractory carbon compounds like cellulose and lignin.
Enzymes like cellulase (for cellulose) protease (for Conclusion
proteins) and phosphatase (for organic phosphates) By harnessing the potential of soil carbon, we can drive
play key role in this breakdown. This stable carbon a positive ripple effect across ecosystems. Enhanced
remains deposited in the soil enhancing soil heath and soil carbon sequestration supports biodiversity,
supporting sustainable land management. strengthens ecosystem services, and contributes to a
more climate-resilient planet.
Mitigation Strategies for
Enhancing Soil Carbon
l Biochar Application: Biochar is a carbon-rich
material produced by burning organic matter (e.g.,
crop residues, wood chips, coconut shells) in low-
oxygen conditions. In regions like Andhra Pradesh
and parts of Africa, farmers apply biochar to improve
soil fertility and carbon retention.

Krishi Parasar 15
 Keywords such as hornbills and bulbuls help disperse seeds,
boosting biodiversity in agroforestry areas.
Bird-friendly farming, farmland birds, agroecology,
sustainable agriculture. l Early Warning System: Declines in bird
populations often indicate larger ecological issues.
Introduction Birds serve as excellent indicators of habitat health
and pesticide impact. Bird-friendly agriculture
At first, farms and forests appear to be opposites. combines conservation with farming. Unlike
One is cultivated, while the other is wild. However, traditional conservation methods that separate
as the lines between conservation and farming blur, nature from agriculture, this approach reimagines
bird-friendly farming is emerging as a new approach. farmland as potential habitats. It focuses on creating
This concept aims to address an urgent question: Can farms with complexity to support birds throughout
agriculture support both people and the planet? their life cycles—roosting, feeding, and breeding.
The answer can be found in the wings of the birds.

The Crisis in Our Fields

l Modern farming has drastically increased food
production, but at a significant ecological cost.
In the relentless pursuit of higher yields, natural
vegetation is removed, single-crop farming
dominates, and pesticides are widely used. Birds,
once common in farming areas, are disappearing.
l A groundbreaking study by Donald et al. (2001)
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
B found that European farmland bird populations
Key practices include
declined by more than 50% from the 1980s to today 1. Habitat Heterogeneity
due to intensified agricultural practices. This trend l Mixed farms with fruits, trees, and cover crops
is now spreading globally; in India, for example, provide food and shelter for a wider variety of birds.
Indian rollers, skylarks, and lapwings are vanishing Hedgerows and native shrubs along field edges act
from formerly familiar habitats. as corridors for birds.
l These losses matter. Birds are not just beautiful;
2. Agroforestry Systems
they play essential roles in agricultural systems. l Agroforestry, or planting crops among trees, creates
a paradise for birds. Trees offer nesting places
Why Birds Matter in for cavity nesters and hunting spots. Agroforestry
patches in Kerala can host up to 80% more bird
Agriculture species than single-crop fields.

l Birds perform vital ecosystem functions: 3. Water Management

l Insect Regulation: Research published in Ecology l Ponds, canals, and wetlands attract waterbirds like
Letters (Kremen & Miles, 2012) shows that insect- egrets, herons, and moorhens. Birds help control
eating birds, such as drongos and bee-eaters, help pests such as snails and insects, while also adding
control caterpillars, beetles, and grasshoppers. beauty and ecological benefits.
In Kenya, maize fields accessible to birds have
significantly lower pest densities and higher yields 4. Reducing Pesticides
than caged-off fields. l Chemicals disrupt the insect populations that birds
rely on and can poison the birds themselves. RSPB
l Rodent Control: Barn owls (Tyto alba) are common
research shows that pesticide-free field borders
in India and can eat up to 3,000 rodents each year.
greatly improve skylark breeding success in UK
Farmers in Gujarat who install nest boxes observe
wheat farms.
a 30-40% reduction in crop loss due to rodents,
according to data from the Bombay Natural History 5. Nest Box Programs
Society (BNHS).
l BNHS and forest departments in India have
l Pollination & Seed Dispersal: Sunbirds and launched nest box projects for owls and treepies.
flowerpeckers aid in the pollination of fruits like These boxes are easy to install and help control
papaya, guava, and bananas. Fruits-eating birds pests without chemicals.

22 The Neotia University (TNU)

 Conclusion
Case Studies: How It’s Bird-friendly farming is not about going back to pre-
Working industrial methods — it’s about working with nature, not
against it. In the long run, biodiversity-based farming
l India – Owl Farming in Gujarat is more resilient to climate change, pest outbreaks,
and market volatility. As farmers sow seeds into the
l Farmers in Gujarat’s Saurashtra region are
soil, perhaps they’re also sowing hope into the sky —
using artificial nest boxes for barn owls. These
inviting the birds to return, and with them, the songs of
nocturnal hunters help keep rodent populations
a more balanced, sustainable world.
under control, making them valuable allies in
paddy and groundnut farming. A BNHS survey
revealed a 30-40% decrease in rodenticide
use on farms employing this model. References:
l UK – RSPB’s Skylark Plots and Agri- 1. Donald, P. F., Green, R. E., & Heath, M.
Environment Schemes F. (2001). Agricultural intensification and
the collapse of Europe’s farmland bird
l Farmers working with the Royal Society for the populations. Proceedings of the Royal
Protection of Birds (RSPB) create unplanted Society B.
“skylark plots” within large wheat fields.
2. Kremen, C., & Miles, A. (2012). Ecosystem
Skylarks can nest here without disturbance
services in biologically diversified farming
from machinery. Observations show a 20%
systems. Ecology Letters.
improvement in nesting success in these
fields. Latin America – Bird-Friendly Coffee 3. BNHS India. (2021). “Owl Nest Box Projects
Certification in Indian Farmlands.”
 The Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center 4. RSPB UK. (2020). “Farming for Birds: Best
developed a certification for coffee farms that Practice Guidelines.”
maintain indigenous canopy trees and limit 5. Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center. (2023).
chemical use. These farms have recorded “Bird-Friendly Coffee Certification and
over 150 bird species, many being North Benefits.”
American migratory birds. Certified farms
typically earn 15-20% more, balancing ecology
with economy.

Krishi Parasar 23
 l NGO Interventions l Malawi: 30%.
Organizations like CARE, UNICEF, and Oxfam are
l Assam, India: >50%.
actively working to empower women in tea-growing
regions through health, education, and financial l Indonesia: 30%.
inclusion initiatives.
l Sri Lanka: >50%.

6. The Way Forward

To create lasting change, tea companies, governments,
and civil society must: Enforce equal pay and legal
protections. Encourage women’s participation in
decision-making. Promote education, healthcare, and
housing for workers. Support women-led enterprises
and cooperatives.
By empowering women, the tea industry not only
fosters social justice but also enhances productivity,
quality, and sustainability.

Acknowledgement
Agricultural workforce This article is inspired by the hardworking women
Women make essential contributions to agriculture and of tea plantations worldwide, whose resilience and
rural economic activities in all developing countries, dedication often go unrecognized. Sincere thanks
and comprise around 43% of the agricultural labour to the organizations and researchers who continue
force. to document and support the cause of women’s
empowerment in agriculture, especially within the tea
Here’s the share of employed women working in
sector. The insights from various NGOs, government
agriculture in the regions we work
programs, and academic resources were instrumental
l Kenya: 60% (2020). in shaping this work.

l Malawi: 43% (2020).

l Rwanda: 71% (2020).
References:
l China: 22% (2020).
1. Katyal, Arun. Fundamentals of Agriculture,
l India: 54% (2020). Vol. I – Kalyani
l Indonesia: 26% (2020). 2. Publishers. Fairtrade International – https://
www.fairtrade.net
3. https://www.sewabharat.org
4. https://www.oxfamindia.org
5. Rainforest Alliance – https://www.rainforest-
alliance.org
6. “Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender
Gap” – FAO Report 2011

Women working in tea

As in many agricultural industries, tea relies on a
female workforce. Many women who work in tea are
pluckers, a labor- intensive job. In Assam, India, we
know that around 365,000 women work in the estate
sector alone. Here’s the proportion of tea workers
who are women. Across some of the regions that we
operate in:

26 The Neotia University (TNU)

 What Are the Opportunities How Can India Promote
in India? Carbon Farming More
l Viability of Organic Farming: Grassroots initiatives
and pioneering agrarian research in India are
Effectively?
demonstrating the viability of organic farming to India can encourage carbon farming more effectively
sequester carbon. Carbon Farming. In this regard, through a variety of strategies, including:
agro-ecological practices in India could yield
l Legal Framework for Carbon Farming:
significant economic benefits, with the potential to
Establish comprehensive carbon farming legislation
generate $63 billion in value from approximately
to promote carbon sinks on agricultural lands,
170 million hectares of arable land.
addressing climate crises and improving agricultural
l Suitability Across Geographic Regions: Regions sustainability.
with extensive agricultural land, such as the Indo-
l Direct Incentives for Farmers:
Gangetic plains and the Deccan Plateau, are
Provide direct incentives, such as tools and credit
well suited to adopt carbon farming whereas the
support, to encourage adoption of climate-friendly
mountainous terrain of the Himalayan region is less
practices in the agriculture and forestry sectors.
suited. Coastal areas are prone to salinization and
have limited access to resources, thus limiting the l Utilizing Carbon Credits and Banks:
adoption of traditional farming practices. Reward farmers with globally tradable carbon credits
and establish carbon banks to incentivize carbon
l Enhancing Food Security: Carbon credit systems
sequestration efforts and promote sustainable land
can incentivize farmers by providing additional
management.
income through environmental services.
l Collective Engagement:
l Agricultural soils can absorb 3-8 billion tonnes of
Foster cohesive policies, public-private
CO2-equivalent every year over 20-30 years. This
partnerships, precise quantification methods, and
can bridge the gap between feasible emissions
supportive financing mechanisms for scalable
reductions and the indispensable stabilization of
carbon farming implementation.
the climate.
l Unlocking Soil Potential:
Thus, carbon farming could also be a sustainable
Recognize soil’s potential as a potent carbon sink
strategy to mitigate climate change and enhance food
and harness it to meet Net Zero goals and drive
security in India
decarbonization.

29 The Neotia University (TNU)

Conclusion
References:
Scaling Carbon farming in India would require
concerted efforts to address challenges of limited 1. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-
awareness, inadequate policy support, technological and-environment/what-is- carbon-farming-
barriers, and an enabling adoption environment. explained/article68147027.
Promoting carbon farming is in India’s interests to ece#:~:text=What%20are%20the%20
mitigate climate change while improving soil health, opportunities%20in,Agricultural%20and%20
enhancing biodiversity, and creating economic Horticultural%20Sciences%2C%20Shi
opportunities for its adopters. vamogga.

2. h t t p s : / / w w w . s t u d y i q . c o m / a r t i c l e s /
carbon- farming/#:~:text=enhance%20
carbon%20sinks.-,Opportunities%20in%20
India,mountainous%20terrain%20and%20
salini zation%2C%20respectively

Krishi Parasar 30
 Fig. 6 Group photo with the participants

Table 1. List of participants

68 The Neotia University (TNU)