Overview of GIS

GIS is a technological field that incorporates geographical features with tabular data in order
to map, analyse, and assess real-world problems. The key word to this technology is
Geography – this means that the data (or at least some portion of the data) is spatial, in
otherwards, data that is in some way referenced to locations on the earth. Attribute data can
be generally defined as additional information about each of the spatial features. An example
of this would be schools. The actual location of the schools is the spatial data. Additional data
such as the school’s name, level of education taught, student capacity would makeup the
attribute data. It is the partnership of these two data types that enables GIS to be such an
effective problem-solving tool through spatial analysis. GIS operates on many levels. On the
most basic level, GIS is used as computer cartography, i.e., mapping. The real power in GIS is
through using spatial and statistical methods to analyze attribute and geographic information.
The end result of the analysis can be derivative information, interpolated information or
prioritized information.

Questions GIS can Answer

We can gain a deeper understanding of GIS by looking at the type of questions the technology
can (or should be able to) answer. Basically, we can identify five broad types of questions
that a sophisticated GIS can answer.

Location: What is at ?

This question seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. A location can be described
in many ways, using, for example, a place name, post code, or geographic reference such
as longitude/latitude or x andy.

Condition: Where is it ?

In this question, instead of seeking to identify what exists at a given location, one may wish to
find location(s) where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g., all rentable 3-bed room apartments
in a neighborhood, sites suitable for the construction of a cement industry, anunforested section
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of at

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least 2000 square meters in size, within 100 meters of road, and with soils suitable for
supporting buildings)

Trends: What has changed since…………..?

This question involves seeking to know what has changed over a given period of time, as well
as the magnitude and spatial pattern of such a change (e.g. change inland use or elevation
overtime).

Patterns: What spatial patterns exist…………..?

This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to determine whether,
for instance, landslides are mostly occurring near streams. It might be just as important to
knowhow many anomalies are there, those who do not fit the pattern and where they are located.

Modeling: What if……………..?

"What if… " questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, if a new road is
added to a network or if a toxic substance seeps into the local groundwater supply. Answering
this type of question requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific
models). GIS permits spatial operations.

Definitions of GIS

There are several definitions of GIS in existence. However, none of such definitions is
universally accepted. It is difficult to agree on a single definition for GIS for the simple reason
that various kinds of GIS exist, each made for different purposes and for different types of
decision making. As we will see shortly in the range of definitions presented below, people offer
definitions of GIS with different emphasis on various aspects of GIS.

Burrough (1986) defines GIS as a "set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at
will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of
purposes".

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Arnoff (1989) defines GIS as "a computer-based system that provides four sets of capabilities
to handle geo-referenced data: data input, data management (data storage and retrieval),
manipulation and analysis, and data output."

“A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and

analysing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates
common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique
visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps” (ESRI, 1990).

"A geographic information system (GIS) is an information system that is designed to work
with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a
database system with specific capabilities for spatially-reference data, as well as a set of
operations for working with data" (Star and Estes, 1990).

AGIS is "an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all
forms of geographically referenced information" (ESRI, 1990).

History of GIS Development (Assignment)

GIS versus Allied Technologies

There are some systems that are similar in both function and name to GIS. Nevertheless,
such systems are not really geographic information systems as defined above. Broadly, these
similar systems do not share GIS's ability to perform complex analysis. Computer-Aided Drafting
(CAD) systems, for example, are sometimes confused with GIS. Not long ago,a major distinction
existed between GIS and CAD, but their differences are beginning to disappear.

Similarities between GIS and CAD

1. Both systems have similar requirements for capturing, storing and displaying graphic
images interactively.

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2. Interactive commands for entering lines or symbols and for editing, moving, modifying
and deleting features are required for both applications.

3. Existing (analogue) maps (in the case of GIS) and drawings (in the case of CAD), must
be digitized.

4. Both applications require capabilities for operations such as annotation, labelling, calculation of
length, distance and area.

5. Both types of systems require similar computer hardware devices such as processor, disk,
tape, workstation, digitizer, scanner, and plotter.

6. Both have requirements for the linking of attribute data with their graphic entities.

Differences between GIS and CAD

1. GIS makes use of maps ranging from large to small scales whereas engineering drawings
used in CAD applications usually have very large scales.

2. GIS applications unlike their CAD counterpart, generally require complex and large volume of
attribute data.

3. GIS operations involve complex geographic analysis and modelling of geographic

features; CAD applications deal with sophisticated engineering calculations and modelling of
engineering

structures.

4. GIS makes use of standard map projections while CAD does not. Simple local plane
coordinates are usually enough for engineering drawings.

5.GIS has powerful facilities for numerous attribute data processing operations; CAD, on the
other hand, has limited attribute processing capabilities.

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6. GIS handles many spatial features such as soil, vegetation, elevation, boundaries,
population and infrastructural facilities like roads, sewers, electricity, water, and soon; and also
covers a wide

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geographic area like city, local government, state, country or even the entire earth. On the
other hand, CAD applications deal with a specific or single project like the engineering design of
a road segment, water or sewer line, electrical wiring, and so on. Such designs are usually done at
a very large scale hence they cover very small geographic area.

7. GIS applications use topological data structure that allows for the geographic analysis of
the data based on the spatial relationships among map elements. CAD applications do not
require a topological data structure.

8. A GIS can be used to perform geographic analytical tasks such as polygon overlay
analysis, network tracing and routing, buffering and delineation of service area, district,
ecological zone, and soon. A CAD on the other hand, is used for carrying out engineering
analysis and calculation functions.

9. GIS is usually used for constant updating of map features, which are known to change
frequently. On the other hand, engineering drawings (and structures) hardly change. However, if
a major change should occur which may necessitate altering the original concept or structure,
an entirely new drawing is produced rather than updating the original drawing.

COMPONENTS OF GIS

1. COMPUTER HARDWARE

This consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The computer forms
the backbone of the GIS hardware. The central piece of equipment is the workstation, which
runs the GIS software and is the attachment point for ancillary equipment. The choice of
hardware system ranges from 300MHz personal computers (PCs) to multi-user
supercomputers having high processing capability. The computer contains the processor,
which is used to manage and manipulate the database based on certain rules and commands.
With the advent of Web-enabled GIS, Web servers have also become an important piece of
equipment for GIS.

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The hardware components of GIS are the physical electronic devices used in performing
GIS operations. The hardware devices include the CPU and allied accessories used in various
data handling functions such as data capture/entry, storage, manipulation, output, and
distribution. The devices are usually of varying capacities; however, owing to the
characteristically voluminous and largely graphic nature of geospatial data, robust and high
caliber devices are often preferably required for their handling. In a nutshell, the major
hardware-related elements essential for effective GIS operations could be summarized as
follows (Burrough, 1986):

• the presence of a processor with sufficient power to run the software

• sufficient memory for the storage of large volumes of data

• a good quality, high-resolution colour graphics screen

• data input and output devices (for example, digitizers, scanners, keyboard, printers and plotters).

2. GIS SOFTWARE

Generally, software is a digital language comprising of set(s) of rules, commands, algorithms

or programs, logically and systematically written to perform certain tasks. The software
elements allow the user to input, store, manage, transform, analyse and output data (Heywood,
Cornelius, and Carver, 1998).

Typical GIS software consists of four distinct but interrelated subsystems or modules. These are:
• Data input software subsystem (used for e.g. digitizing or scanning, checking, editing, topology
building, etc).

• Data storage and retrieval software subsystem.

• Data manipulation and analysis software subsystem (e.g. for querying, sorting or
indexing, overlay operations, buffer creation, etc.)

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• Data output software subsystem (e.g. for screen display, page set□up formatting, hard
copy generation, etc.)

The GIS technology runs on software – a set of logically related rules, commands, algorithm
and programs. Some of the software elements are designed to perform a single broad task while
some are multi-purpose and multi-functional. The choice of software to install and run on
a GIS platform, therefore, depends on the intended use of such a system. By and large, care must
betaken to select software that can conveniently perform any of the four major tasks of GIS
software identified above. Examples of GIS software’s includes but not limited to:

• GRASS GIS: Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, open source:
a complete GIS.

• SAGA GIS (System for Automated Geo-scientific Analysis): hybrid GIS software. SAGA has
a unique Application Programming Interface (API) and a fast-growing set of geoscientific
methods, bundled in exchangeable Module Libraries.

• Quantum GIS: QGIS is an Open-Source GIS that runs on Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X,
and Windows.

• ESRI: Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, ArcWeb services and
ArcGIS Server.

• ERDAS IMAGINE by ERDAS Inc; products include Leica Photogrammetry Suite, ERDAS ER
Mapper, and ERDAS ECW JPEG2000 SDK.

• ILWIS: ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) integrates image, vector
and thematic data.

3. DATA USED IN GIS

Data is the core of any GIS. There are two primary types of data that are used in GIS
namely, spatial (or geographic) data and aspatial (attribute or descriptive) data.
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Documentation of GIS

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datasets is known as metadata. Metadata contains such information as the coordinate system, when
the data was created, when it was last updated, who created it and how to contact them
and definitions for any of the coded attribute data. Geographic data and related tabular data
can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. AGIS will integrate
spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organisations to
maintain their data, to manage spatial data. This unit aims at introducing both spatial and
attributes data.

a) Spatial Data

Spatial data are used to graphically represent some real-world features. The features could
be material (visible), e.g. road, building, water body; or they could also be abstract (invisible)
e.g. geopolitical boundaries, language, and temperature. Similarly, spatial data can be obtained
from primary or secondary sources. The primary data are obtained first-hand by the user
while secondary data are obtained from already existing sources. The digital map forms the
basic data input for GIS. The map is an abstraction or model of some aspect of reality.
Geographical features are abstracted into four spatial entities namely point (0-dimensional),
line (1-dimensional), area (2- dimensional),and volume (3-dimensional). (See Unit 4 of Module
1). In practice, however, the first three entities (point, line and area) are commonly used.

Fig. 1: Categories of spatial data.

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 b) Aspatial (Attribute)

Data Geographic data is usually known as aspatial or attribute data. Attribute data is
generally defined as additional information about each spatial feature. An attribute data gives
descriptive information about some aspect of a geographical entity. Every geographical
feature has some attributes. For example, a person is a geographical object located somewhere
and occupying space. However, this person also has some attributes with which they can be
identified e.g. name, age, complexion, height, tribal/ethnic affiliation, religion, occupation,
educational level, hobby, etc. Similarly, a school is a geographical entity having various
attributes such as name, address, year of establishment, owner, facilities available (e.g.
classrooms, playground, library, laboratory, weather station, hostels), etc. In a GIS
environment, attribute data is usually housed in tabular format. This tabular database related to
the map objects can also be attached or linked to the digital spatial database.

To successfully implement GIS, data is a critical element. Data is the raw material that
GIS processes to yield a highly sort after product namely, information. In a sense, data is the
element that keeps the engine of GIS running. However, care must always betaken to ensure that
the right data is fed into the system. Creating GIS databases could be herculean task; yet once in
place and routinely updated, the databases are an invaluable asset to the users.

4. GIS PERSONNEL

Effective development and use of the GIS technology requires the involvement of a number of
people performing different tasks. In a GIS environment, the people are fittingly referred to as the
human ware or liveware. Well-trained people knowledgeable in spatial analysis and skilled in
using GIS software are essential to the GIS process. The human ware coordinates and controls
all the other components of GIS. GIS personnel range from technical specialists (who
design and maintain the system) to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work.

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There are three

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factors to the people component: education, career path, and networking. The right education is
key; taking the right combination of classes. Selecting the right type of GIS job is important.
A person highly skilled in GIS analysis should not seek a job as a GIS developer if they have
not taken the necessary programming classes. Finally, continuous networking with other
GIS professionals is essential for the exchange of ideas as well as a support community.

GIS personnel are those involved in the provision of the hardware and software, acquisition
and handling of data, as well as decision making and implementation. A team of experts is
usually required to successfully install and run a GIS outfit. The quality of personnel
involved in the implementation of a GIS project can make or mar the initiative. Hence,
concerted effort should be made to ensure that the right calibers of personnel are used. Personnel
are the most valuable asset required in the implementation of any GIS programme.

5. GIS METHOD/PROCEDURE

Simply put, procedure or method has to do with the ways of getting a job done in an
organization. But with particular reference to GIS, method could be understood to include a well-
designed GIS implementation plan in addition to business rules, which are the models and
operating practices unique to each organization (Buckley, URL). Method may vary from one
organization to another, depending on the objectives as well as modus operandi of each
individual organization (Uluocha, 2007).

The way an estate surveyor/valuer would use the GIS facility, for instance, will differ from how
a geologist would use it – since their goals and functions also differ. The essence of adopting
the GIS technology in any organization is to assist the organization to attain its goals. GIS is
normally used to meet the information need of an organization, which is quite crucial to
decision-making. But for GIS to successfully operate in an organization, it has to be appropriately
integrated into the business strategy and operations of that organization. Thus, GIS should be a
functional part of the entire method of data acquisition, input, storage, sorting, indexing,
retrieval, analysis, output and updating, along with the process of decision-making.

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In discussing or determining the GIS procedure in any organization the following should
betaken into consideration:

• the nature of the company’s business (what does the company do?)

• spatial data requirements of the company; that is, the types of geospatial data used by
the company for its various activity modules.

• how the company collects, converts, stores, and processes its spatial database

• the pattern of information flow in the company

• data accessibility policy of the company

• geospatial data handling facilities available

• the cartographic (map) and allied products (outputs) required by the company.

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