COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING STREAM) ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
Bridge Engineering
Individual Assignment- I
Submitted to: Kabtamu G (PHD)
Submission date: Feb 5, 2024
JANUARY 2024
ADDIS ABABA
Assignment-I
1. Review Different Grade Separated Structures: Type with advantages and
disadvantages?
Grade separated structures are transportation infrastructure elements designed to separate
different modes of transportation, such as roads, railways, or pedestrians, at different
levels or grades. They are designed to reduce or eliminate conflicts between various
forms of transportation, enhancing efficiency, safety, and traffic flow.
The vertical separation of transportation routes is referred to as "grade separation".
Grades separated buildings, which are usually created by elevating one form of
transportation over another, passing it below, or tunnelling it beneath, establish separate
channels instead of crossings where multiple types of traffic cross each other at the same
level.
The term "grade separation" describes the actual physical features of a road, including
overpasses and underpasses. These allow traffic to cross an intersection either over or
under it without altering the current traffic pattern. In order to avoid obstructing railroad
tracks, a grade separation offers an alternate path for traffic. Additionally, grade
separations enable traffic to split up across a city or densely populated area, sending
vehicles in different directions by passing over and under other nearby roadways.
Grade separations can be used to create paths for trains, alternate routes for traffic, and
even pedestrian bridges on roadways.
Figure: Grade Separated Structures
Classification of Grade Separated
The directed and non-directional interchanges are two types of interchanges that are
distinguished from one another. Ramps at directional interchanges typically follow the
direction in which traffic flows naturally. The natural route of traffic flow must be altered
in order to accommodate non-directional interchanges. There is currently no complete
classification plan for grade-separated intersection design that takes into account all
potential geometric configurations. Each of the main interchange types has the following
design and operating features, which are covered in the sections that follow.
1. Underpass
An underground route, also known as an underpass or tunnel, is totally enclosed with the
exception of egress and entry apertures, which are often located at each end. A tunnel
may be used for rail transit, foot traffic, or automobile traffic. A structure is referred to as
a subway if it is built with an underpass beneath a road or railroad so that bicyclists
and/or pedestrians can cross safely. When pedestrians need to cross a railroad or a
limited-access highway, they are built. It is also possible to build subways for the benefit
of wildlife.
Figure: picture of underpass structure
2. Overpass
A bridge, road, railroad, or other similar construction that spans over another road or
railroad is called an overpass, sometimes referred to as a flyover. With the help of a
pedestrian bridge, people can cross busy roadways safely and without causing a traffic
jam. Additionally, as a safer option to at-grade crossings, railway overpasses are utilized.
Overpasses prevent automobile and pedestrian traffic from obstructing the flow of rail
traffic. Numerous overpasses make up stack interchanges.
Figure: picture of over pass
3. Trumpet Interchange
At the intersection of two highways, trumpet interchanges have been employed. These
involve at least one loop ramp that connects the far lanes of the continuous highway with
vehicles entering or exiting the terminating expressway. Both highways and toll roads can
benefit from these interchanges since they focus all incoming and outgoing traffic into a
single section of road, which allows for the installation of toll booths. Trumpets work
well in areas where there is only one side of the freeway with a side road and little to no
traffic. There are acceleration or deceleration lanes at both ends of every entrance and
exit. It is the most conventional method of grade separating a three-way intersection and
only calls for one bridge. The main benefits are that they are affordable to build and work
well for both toll and highway roads. However, using trumpet interchanges has
drawbacks. It leaves a redundant area of land inside the loop, making it difficult for
drivers traveling in the direction that uses it to navigate. Furthermore, narrowing the
intersection frequently leads to more hazardous traffic jams caused by overturned
articulated Lorries.
Figure: picture of Trumpet Interchange
4. Diamond Interchange
The diamond interchange is a grade separated intersection with four one-way ramps
parallel to the major artery, reducing conflicts between through and crossing traffic. It is
suitable for locations with low left turn traffic volume. The interchange requires minimal
land, is economical to construct, and requires less out-of-the-way travel and vehicle
operating costs. However, conflicts may occur at locations where ramps meet grade
separated cross streets due to high ramp volumes and improper signal timings at cross
streets.
Figure: picture of Diamond Interchange
5. Cloverleaf Interchange
The full clover interchange eliminates crossing movement conflicts by using weaving
sections, merging and diverging conflicts. It requires only one bridge and is the cheapest
form. However, it has disadvantages like greater travel distances, higher operating costs,
and difficult merging sections, circuitry of travel, large loop areas, sight distances,
confusion, and large rights-of-way. A variation of the cloverleaf configuration is the
cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads, which transfers main roadway operations to
collector-distributor roads. This configuration improves operational characteristics but
still requires greater travel distances and extra right-of-way. It is suitable for junctions
between freeways and expressways where a diamond interchange would not adequately
serve traffic demand.
Figure: picture of cloverleaf Interchange
6. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
This is an additional cloverleaf configuration version. In order to remove just the more
serious turning conflicts, a partial clover leaf, or parcel, alteration combines some
components of a diamond interchange with one or more loops of a cloverleaf. The most
well-liked freeway-to-arterial junction is this one. Parcel is typically used when there
won't be an unacceptable level of risk or delay when crossing roadways on the secondary
route. On the freeway, it offers more room for acceleration and deceleration.
Figure: picture of partial Cloverleaf Interchange
7. Directional Interchange
Directional interchanges offer direct paths for left turns, with ramps for one or more
direct or semi-direct movements. They are suitable for heavy turning movements and
require higher construction costs and land. However, some designers prefer merging
traffic in the left lane. Combinations of directional, semi-directional, and loop ramps are
suitable for common terrain and traffic conditions.
Figure: Picture of directional Interchange
Advantages of Grade Spectator
➢ This kind of traffic separation has a number of benefits, one of which is that it permits
traffic to flow more freely and at faster average speeds. Roads with grade separations
usually have higher speed limits. Additionally, because there is less potential for
accidents, grade separations make roadways safer to drive on.
➢ Grade separator provides maximum facility to the crossing traffic and avoids the accident
while crossing.
➢ They provide increased safety for turning traffic. By introducing indirect interchange
ramp, even right turn movements can be made quite easy and safe.
➢ Grade separation is an essential part of controlled access highway like an expressway.
➢ It is possible to adopt grade separation for all likely angles and layout of intersecting
roads.
➢ Stage construction of additional ramps is possible after the grade separation structure
between main roads is construction.
➢ Traffic capacity is increased.
➢ Overall, these highways have lower accident rates than other roads, despite the fact that
faster speeds are permitted.
Disadvantages of Grade Separator
➢ The primary drawback of roads with grade separation is their expense. This kind of
roadway requires the construction of substantial and costly physical structures. The
adjacent landowners dislike the constructions since they are so big that their height can
be a little intrusive. The expense and obtrusiveness of a new grade separation plan can
make it challenging to pass.
➢ The construction cost is very high.
➢ Construction of grade separator is costly, difficult and undesirable where there is
limited right of way or where the topography is not favourable.
➢ In flat or plain terrains, grade separation may introduce undesirable crests and sags in
the vertical alignment.
2. What is Bridge Rating (Refer ERA Bridge manual)? Explain its advantages
in posting Bridge capacity.
The procedure for rating existing bridges involves considering the physical conditions of
the bridge and the applied loadings. To ensure a safe rating, it's important to estimate the
nominal strengths based on a thorough investigation of the structure's physical condition.
On-going efforts to address any signs of deterioration should also be taken into account.
Additionally, it's necessary to have knowledge about traffic conditions, including any
indications of overweight vehicle combinations. Accurate methods of structural analysis
should be employed to estimate load effects when needed.
Load and resistance factors (LRFD) are crucial in evaluating bridges, as they must
consider uncertainties in strength, analysis, and loading. Structural reliability helps bridge
engineers select appropriate factors for rating specific bridges. Evaluations require
knowledge of available capacity, applied loading, and structure response. LRFD provides
uniform safety by recognizing dead load effects may require lower margins than live load
effects due to their relative uncertainty. The rating check compares factored load effects
and resistance at critical sections, determining the bridge's suitability for the loads under
consideration. If not acceptable, detailed analysis options are available.
According to AASHTO LRFRD (Bases for ERA manual), load rating the LRFRD
technique comprises three discrete evaluation levels: The three ratings are
➢ Design load Rating
➢ Legal load Rating
➢ Permit load Rating
Every evaluation's outcome fulfils a certain function and indicates when more
assessments are required.
Bridge Rating-Strength Evaluation
1. Design load Rating
It is a preliminary evaluation of bridges. It provides a gauge of the current bridge's
performance in comparison to the most recent LRFD bridge design standards.
Purpose: Design load rating can be used as a screening method to determine which
bridges need to be load rated for permissible loads.
There are two levels of the Design Load Rating:
➢ Inventory Rating Level
The Inventory rating level generally corresponds to the rating at the design level of
reliability for new bridges in the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications but reflects the existing bridge and material conditions
considering deterioration and loss of section.
➢ Operation Rating Level
Load rating based of the operation rating level generally describes the maximum
permissible live load to which the structure may be subjected. Generally, corresponds to
the rating at the Operating level may shorten the life of the bridge.
2. Legal Load Rating
For a specific truck configuration, this second level rating offers a single safe load
capacity that is suitable for both AASHTO and state-legal loads.
The purpose of load rating bridges for legal loads is to determine whether load posting or
strengthening is necessary if the bridge's capacity is not sufficient according to the
design-load rating.
The purpose of load rating bridges for legal loads is to determine whether load posting or
strengthening is necessary if the bridge's capacity is not sufficient according to the
design-load rating.
3. Permit Load Rating
This third level of rating should only be applied to bridges having sufficient capacity for
legal loads. In other words, Permit load rating should be used only if the bridge has a
rating factor greater than 1.0 when evaluated for AASHTO legal loads.
The goal of permit load rating is to evaluate applications for permits to drive vehicles
over the legally mandated weight limit by assessing the safety and serviceability of
bridges.
Advantages in posting Bridge capacity
➢ Increased Safety: By posting the bridge's capacity, it helps ensure that vehicles crossing
the bridge do not exceed the specified weight limit. This reduces the risk of overloading
and potential structural failures, improving overall safety for drivers and pedestrians.
➢ Preventing Damage: By making the bridge's weight limit known to the public, it serves
as a reminder to drivers to abide by the restrictions. This helps prevent damage to the
bridge caused by vehicles that are too heavy, extending the lifespan of the structure and
reducing maintenance costs.
➢ Efficient Traffic Management: Bridge capacity postings assist in effective traffic
management. It enables drivers to plan their routes considering weight restrictions,
preventing unnecessary detours and congestion caused by oversized vehicles attempting
to cross a bridge that cannot handle their weight.
➢ Regulatory Compliance: Posting bridge capacities helps enforce legal compliance. It
becomes easier for law enforcement agencies to identify and penalize vehicles that exceed
the weight limits, thereby promoting adherence to transportation regulations and
maintaining the integrity of the infrastructure.
Overall, posting bridge capacities improves safety, reduces maintenance costs, enhances
traffic flow management, and ensures compliance with regulations.
3. What are the bridge construction and maintenance methods? List some them
and discus. How bridge designer include the bridge construction in design
process? Is construction load different after construction? Why?
Bridge types, materials, locations, and financial restraints are only a few of the variables
that affect the building and maintenance techniques. Here are a few common methods:
➢ Cast-in-place method: In this method, concrete is poured into formwork at the
construction site. It allows for flexibility in design and can be used for various bridge
types.
➢ Precast/pre stressed method: In precast construction, bridge components such as
beams, columns, and panels are manufactured off-site and transported to the
construction site for assembly. This method reduces construction time and provides
better quality control.
➢ Steel truss construction: Steel trusses involve the assembly of individual steel
members like beams and girders to form a structural framework. This method is
commonly used for bridges with longer spans.
➢ Suspension method: Suspension bridges have main cables suspended from towers,
with smaller cables supporting the bridge deck. This method allows for long span
capability but requires significant expertise and engineering considerations.
➢ Cable-stayed method: Cable-stayed bridges have cables that are attached to the towers
and support the bridge deck directly. This construction method is suitable for moderate
to long span bridges.
Bridge designers include the construction process in the design phase to ensure that the
structural elements can be fabricated, transported, and assembled effectively. They
consider factors such as construction sequencing, required equipment, and temporary
supports. By incorporating construction considerations, designers can optimize efficiency
and minimize costs.
The construction load and the final design load of a bridge can be different. During
construction, temporary loads like machinery, equipment, and construction materials are
imposed on the structure. These loads are usually higher than the permanent design loads,
which include traffic, wind, and other environmental factors. Construction loads are
temporary and are applied to test the stability and performance of the bridge during the
construction phase. Once construction is complete, these temporary loads are removed,
and the bridge is designed to safely carry the designated design loads over its lifespan.
4. The simply supported 20m T-girder bridge shown below carries a moving vehicular live
load
a) Draw influence line for reaction at A, and B, calculate maximum reactions due to
moving load
b) Draw influence line for bending moment and shear force at the mid span at point C
c) What is the maximum moment at mid span if the uniform dead weight is 50kN/m
included?
Given
A. Draw influence line for reaction at A, and B
a) T girder bridge
b) Moving Vehicular
✓ influence line for reaction at A, and B
Solution
i. Influence line for reaction at A
∑ MB = 0
RA*(20) = 1*(20 –X)
RA = (20- X)/20
RA=1- X/10
Influence line for reaction at point A
ii. Influence line for reaction at B
∑MA= 0
RB*(20) = 1*(X)
RB = X/ 20
Influence line for reaction at point B
✓ Calculate maximum reactions due to moving load
To compute the rxn
∆ABG = ∆CBF
AB/CB=AG/CF
(20/15.70) =1/CF)
CF= (15.70*1)/20
CF= 0.785
∆ABG =∆DBE
AB/DB=AG/DE
(20/11.40) =1/DE)
DE= (11.40*1)/20
DE= 0.58
R (Max) = 145(1) + 145(0.785) +35(0.57)
R (Max) = 145 + 113.825 +19.95
R (Max) = 278.78
B. Draw influence line for bending moment and shear force at the mid span
at point C
✓ Influence line for bending moment at the mid span at point C
i. If the moving load moves from A to C
If a load moves from A to C
∑ MC = 0
MC-RA(10) + (10-X ) = 0
MC= RA * (10) -1 (10 -X)
Where RA= 1- X/ 20
MC = (1- X/20)* (10) – (10-X)
MC=X -0.5X
@ x= 0…..MC= 0
@x = 10…..MC=5
ii. If the moving load moves from C to B
If a load moves from C to B
∑ MC = 0
RB(10) – 1 * (X – 10) – MB = 0
MC= RB * (10) -1 (X -10)
Where RB= X/ 20
MC = (X/20)* (10) – (X-10)
MC=10 -0.5X
@ x= 10…..MC= 5
@x = 20…..MC=0
✓ Influence line for shear force at the mid span at point C
If a load moves from A to C
∑Fy= 0
RA= VC + 1
VC= RA-1
Where ….RA= 1-X/20
VC= (1-X/20)-1
VC= - X/20…….then @ x= 0…. VC=1
@ x=10….VC= -0.5
If a load moves from C to B
∑Fy= 0
VC + RB= 1
VC= 1 - RB
Where ….RB= X/20
VC= 1-X/20
VC= 1- X/20…….then @ x= 10…. VC=0.5
@ x=20… ..... C= 0
Influence line for shear at point C
C. What is the maximum moment at mid span if the uniform dead weight is
50kN/m included?
Using similarity of triangle
∆CBF = ∆HBE
CB/HB=CF/HE
(10/5.70) =(5/HE)
HE= (5.70*5)/10
HE= 2.85
Since the left side and right side triangles are symmetry
IG=HE=2.85
Mmax(1) =(145KN* 2.85 m) + (155KN * 5 m) + (35KN * 2.85 m)
Mmax(1) = 1240 KN.m
Mmax(2) =0.5 * 5 * 20 *50
Mmax(2) = 2500 KN.m
Mmax(Total) = Mmax(1) + Mmax(2)
Mmax(Total) = 1240 KN.m + 2500 KN.m
Mmax(Total) = 3740 KN.m
5. Elaborate the Advantage of Framed Cantilever Bridges (Non Uniform
Section Depth) and Continuous Uniform Depth Bridges?
➢ A framed cantilever bridge: is a type of bridge structure that uses cantilever beams to
support the load. It consists of two cantilever arms that extend rom opposite sides of a
pier or tower and are connected by a suspended span in the middle. The cantilever arms
balance the weight of the suspended span and transfer it to the piers or towers. This
design allows for the construction of long-span bridges without the need for intermediate
supports. The use of a frame structure provides additional stability and strength to the
bridge.
➢ Continuous uniform depth bridges: refers to a type of bridge design where the depth of
the bridge remains consistent or uniform throughout its entire length. This design
approach ensures that the structure is stable and can evenly distribute the load and stress
across its span. By maintaining a constant depth, the bridge's structural integrity and
performance can be enhanced. It is a common design strategy used in various types of
bridges, including beam bridges and girder bridges, among others.
Advantage of Framed Cantilever Bridges (Non-Uniform Section Depth)
➢ Structural Efficiency: Framed cantilever bridges with non-uniform section depth allow
for more efficient use of materials. The varying depth of the sections enables the
distribution of material where it is most needed, reducing overall weight and cost.
➢ Flexibility in Design: Non-uniform section depth provides designers with greater
flexibility in creating bridge designs that can accommodate varying loads and span
lengths. It allows for optimized designs that can effectively withstand different forces and
resist deformation.
➢ Aesthetic Appeal: The use of non-uniform section depth in framed cantilever bridges can
create visually appealing bridge structures. By varying the depth along the span, it adds
architectural interest and uniqueness to the bridge, enhancing its overall aesthetic value.
➢ Improved Structural Integrity: By adjusting the depth of the sections, framed cantilever
bridges can be designed to provide enhanced structural integrity in areas with higher
stress or load concentrations. This enables better load distribution and improves the
overall durability and safety of the bridge.
➢ Reduced Construction Time: Non-uniform section depth can simplify the construction
process of framed cantilever bridges. By utilizing precast concrete segments or steel
sections of varying depths, the assembly and erection of the bridge can be streamlined,
leading to reduced construction time and costs.
Advantage of Continuous Uniform Depth Bridges
➢ Structural Simplicity: Continuous uniform depth bridges offer a simplified structural
design. The consistent section depth along the span reduces complexity in analysis,
fabrication, and construction, making them easier to design and build.
➢ Ease of Maintenance: With a uniform depth, continuous bridges are generally easier to
inspect and maintain. Any necessary repairs or inspections can be conducted more
efficiently due to the consistent and predictable structure, resulting in potential cost
savings over the bridge's lifetime.
➢ Time Efficiency: Continuous uniform depth bridges can be constructed relatively quickly
and efficiently. The uniformity of the structure allows for repetitive construction
processes, leading to accelerated construction timelines and reduced labour costs.
➢ Standardization: Continuous uniform depth bridges often follow common design
standards and specifications, ensuring consistency and compatibility with existing
infrastructure. This standardization simplifies the design and construction processes, as
well as the procurement of materials.
➢ Economic Feasibility: Due to their simplified design and construction processes,
continuous uniform depth bridges can be more cost-effective for shorter spans or in cases
where architectural uniqueness is not a priority. Their straightforward design and reduced
complexity often result in economical solutions for various bridge projects.
Overall, the choice between framed cantilever bridges with non-uniform section depth and
continuous uniform depth bridges depends on the specific requirements, span lengths,
architectural considerations, and budget constraints of the project at hand. Both types of
bridges have their unique advantages and can be suitable for different scenarios.
