Unit-I

Introduction to Computer
1. What is Computer?
The term computer was taken from the Greek word compute means calculation and the computer is a
device that did computation. A computer is a machine used to manipulate data or information and
perform mathematical and logical operations. Modern computers perform a wide range of tasks, store
retrieve, and process information. Using a computer we can create/modify documents, send/receive
emails, browse information on the internet, and play video games. After the invention of computer
science and technology became too advanced. Today we can not imagine growing our technology
without computers.

Types of Computer
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. Analogue computers are used where we don't
need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it
into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Analogue computers allows real-time operations and
computation at the same time and continuous representation of all data within the rage of the
analogue machine. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts
the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs

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stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including
smartphones are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you need
it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without
making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Its output is not affected by noise, temperature, humidity, and other properties of its
components.

3) Hybrid Computer
As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two different things. Hybrid computer
has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an analogue computer and has
memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It
accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in
specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor
is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly,
they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when thinking of computers is
supercomputers. Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second.
This is because of the thousands of interconnected processors in supercomputers. Supercomputers
are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting,
scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger
Cray in 1976.

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Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:
o Supercomputers are the computers that are the fastest and they are also very expensive.
o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions.
o It can run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can
execute any type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in brain
injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analyzing data obtained from exploring the
solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in
the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They
can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking, telecom sectors, etc., which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires
integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It is also an expensive or costly computer.
o It has high storage capacity and great performance.
o It can process huge amount of data very quickly, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large-scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any
error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and
data.

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Applications of mainframe computers:
o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order to
contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease
updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to
their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Minicomputer or Miniframe
Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and
can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments
for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the
mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of minicomputer or miniframe:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:
o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two
primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the
process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and share
data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients and
customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger systems
by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or computer.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It is
generally used to perform a specific task with great accuracy. It has a faster microprocessor, a large
amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great
expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music workstation
and engineering design workstation.

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Characteristics of workstation computer:
o It is expensive or high in cost.
o They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.
o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used as
a workstation.
o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors before
they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives to
store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple drives
to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other starts
functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work while
processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer or Personal Computer (PC)

Microcomputer is also known as a PC (Personal computer). It is a general-purpose computer that is
designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage
area, input unit and output unit. Desktop computers and Laptops are examples of microcomputers.
They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment; prepare document and
presentation, browsing Internet, watching a movie etc.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

Summary : Types of Computer

Depending upon the internal structure and subsequent features and applicability, computer system is
categorized as follows −

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Mainframe Computer
It is high capacity and costly computer. It is largely used by big organizations where many people can
use it simultaneously.

Super Computer
This category of computer is the fastest and also very expensive. A typical supercomputer can solve
up to ten trillion individual calculations per second.

Workstation Computer
The computer of this category is a high-end and expensive one. It is exclusively made for complex
work purpose.

Personal Computer (PC)

It is a low capacity computer developed for single users.

Apple Macintosh (Mac)

It is a sort of personal computer manufactured by Apple company.

Laptop computer (notebook)

It is a handy computer that can be easily carried anywhere.

Tablet and Smartphone

Modern technology has advanced further. It has helped develop computers that are pocket-friendly.
Tablets and smartphones are the best examples of such computer.

History of Computers

Characteristics or Features of Computers

 Speed: A computer is a time-saving device. It performs several calculations and tasks in few
seconds that we take hours to solve. The speed of a computer is measure in terms of GigaHertz
and MegaHertz.
 Accuracy: A calculation or task performed by a computer is accurate the chances of occurring
errors are minimal. The errors occur in a computer by entering wrong data by a human being. A
computer performs several tasks and calculations so quickly and accurately.
 Memory: A computer can store billions of records as per requirement and these records can easily
accessible with full accuracy. The storing capacity of computer memory is measured in terms of
Bytes, Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB), Gigabyte(GB), and Terabyte(TB).
 Versatility: A computer can perform more than one task at the same time, this feature is called
versatility. For example, we can create our project using PowerPoint and Wordpad while listening
to music or we can design a website while listening to music.

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  Automation: Today the world is moving toward AI (Artificial Intelligence) based technology. Once
instructions are programmed, a computer can perform work automatically. This feature of the
computer replaces thousands of workers by performing tasks automatically.
 Reliability: A computer is a reliable device. The output results never differ until the input is
different. If an input is the same then output won’t be different.
 Diligence: A human can not work for several hours without taking a rest whereas a computer
device never gets tired. A computer can perform millions of calculations constantly with full
accuracy without taking a rest.

Components of the Computer System

The various components of the computer system are classified into two groups.
 Hardware
 Software

Basic Applications of Computer



 Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses, educational institutions, research
organizations, the medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc. Today we can not imagine
growing our technology without computers. The various field where the computer is very essential
are:

Education
Now a days, computers used in education sector by providing E-learning platforms, online classes, and
video conferencing tools. Today learning becomes easy because of computers. Anyone employed or
student can learn any stage of life with the help of a computer. Computers are very crucial for online
classes, download study material on the internet. Computers are also used to track student
attendance and learning strategies. Coaching and institutes increased their areas by audio-visual aids
using computers. By using these technologies you can access to courses, learning content, and
interactive learning experiences, making education more interactive.

Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is
transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze investments, sales,
expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.

Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in playing
games, listening to music, etc. Today most people are so busy and they do not easily get time to fresh
their mind. We can play various interesting video games using a computer. We can watch movies, TV
shows, and reality shows on the computer. A computer is also used to create sarcastic memes and
make us happy.

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Science and Engineering
Today computer is the primary work tool in the field of science. It is the best-suited machine for
collecting, analyzing, classifying, and storing data. Computers with high performance are used to
stimulate dynamic process in Science and Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications
in area of Research and Development (R&D). It becomes the most essential medium to spread
knowledge internally and internationally. It allows scientists from different locations to work together
and share ideas on the same project. Topographic images can be created through computers.
Scientists use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

Defence System
A computer performs a vital to control defense system. Computers are used to track airplanes,
missiles, tanks, and different kinds of weapons. Once the radar system tracks a missile and artificial
intelligence is programmed to target a missile and destroy it before it comes on the surface. It also
used for GPS tracking, controlling defense vehicles, records of all members of the military.

Medical
The computer plays a very important role in medical science. Computers are used in hospitals to
maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients heart rate,
oxygen level, and blood pressure., etc. To conduct various surgeries junior doctors get the help of
another professional doctor by web conferencing. Research is also spread with the help of computers
in the health sector. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations,
and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes. It also
helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.

Banking
A computer performs a crucial role in banking sectors, by storing several account holder details on a
bank server. All transactions such as deposits and withdrawals perform by a computer. A banking
company can easily monitor all ATMs and passbook printing machines.

Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of citizens and
supporting a paperless environment. The information of every citizen is stored on the server through
the computer. Government can easily monitor government sectors such as road services, railway,
development, and other rising funds. The country’s defense organizations have greatly benefitted
from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket launches, etc.

Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing
purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc. Online
marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible corners like
interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from different levels of
people through the use of computers.

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Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies or shows
at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc. They provide
communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home facility for corporate
employees. Computers help the student community to avail online educational support.

Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement of
dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.

Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and
improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and travelling
costs by being able to connect people in various locations.

2. Concept of Hardware and Software

Components of the Computer System

The various components of the computer system are classified into two groups.
 Hardware
 Software

1. Hardware
Hardware is the physical tangible component of the computer system. This type of component is
touchable. CPU, Mouse, Keyboard are examples of hardware components. So, the hardware of the
computer system are:

 Input Device: Input devices allow the user to enter data/information in the CPU (Central
Processing Unit). Mouse, Keyboard, scanner, barcode reader are general examples of input
devices.
 Output Device: Output devices input the processed data/information into human-readable form.
Monitor, speaker, projector, printer are general examples of output devices.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is referred to as the brain of a computer system. It is
used to processed data/information and provides output to output devices. The CU (control unit),
ALU (arithmetic and logical unit), and registers are components of the CPU.
 Storage: In a computer, storage devices are used to store the data or information that entered
into the computer system and the output comes from processing the information or data.

2. Software:

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Software is a collection of programs (set of instructions), data, and protocols. It is not in material form
so we can not touch such types of components. The execution of software programs is performed by
hardware. Firmware, operating systems, applications are examples of software.

Software and its Types

Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run machines
and carry out particular activities. It is the antithesis of hardware, which refers to a computer’s external
components. A device’s running programs, scripts, and applications are collectively referred to as
“software” in this context.

What is a Software?
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer
what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to
execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-
Excel, PowerPoint, etc.

Types of Software
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart below
describes the types of software:

Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type and its
subtypes:
1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver

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2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software

System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic
functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words,
system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware
devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware
and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because hardware understands
machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like
English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into machine
language and vice versa.

Types of System Software

It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON
it is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the
resources such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the
user, which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also provides various services to
other computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft
Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language
into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It
converts programs written in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python,
etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as
object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that
device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to
connect with the computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your
computer system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system
knows how to control or manage that device.

Features of System Software

Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 System Software is closer to the computer system.
 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.

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Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic
operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software is
designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to
fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.

Types of Application Software

There are different types of application software and those are:
1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is
not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific
tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway reservation system,
airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure.
It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its
requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk
cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.

Features of Application Software

Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like word
processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

Difference Between System Software and Application Software

Now, let us discuss some difference between system software and application software:
System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of the

It is designed to fulfill the requirements of the
computer system, like memory and process
user for performing specific tasks.
management, etc.

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.

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System Software Application Software

Application software is not so important for

System software plays vital role for the effective
the functioning of the system, as it is task
functioning of a system.
specific.

It is independent of the application software to run. It needs system software to run.

3. Representation of Data/Information

Computer does not understand human language. Any data, viz., letters, symbols, pictures, audio,
videos, etc., fed to computer should be converted to machine language first. Computers represent
data in the following three forms −

Number System

We are introduced to concept of numbers from a very early age. To a computer, everything is a
number, i.e., alphabets, pictures, sounds, etc., are numbers. Number system is categorized into four
types −
 Binary number system consists of only two values, either 0 or 1
 Octal number system represents values in 8 digits.
 Decimal number system represents values in 10 digits.
 Hexadecimal number system represents values in 16 digits.

Number System
System Base Digits

Binary 2 01

Octal 8 01234567

Decimal 10 0123456789

Hexadecimal 16 0123456789ABCDEF

Bits and Bytes

Bits − A bit is a smallest possible unit of data that a computer can recognize or use. Computer usually
uses bits in groups.
Bytes − group of eight bits is called a byte. Half a byte is called a nibble.

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The following table shows conversion of Bits and Bytes −
Byte Value Bit Value

1 Byte 8 Bits

1024 Bytes 1 Kilobyte

1024 Kilobytes 1 Megabyte

1024 Megabytes 1 Gigabyte

1024 Gigabytes 1 Terabyte

1024 Terabytes 1 Petabyte

1024 Petabytes 1 Exabyte

1024 Exabytes 1 Zettabyte

1024 Zettabytes 1 Yottabyte

1024 Yottabytes 1 Brontobyte

1024 Brontobytes 1 Geopbytes

Text Code

Text code is format used commonly to represent alphabets, punctuation marks and other symbols.
Four most popular text code systems are −
 EBCDIC
 ASCII
 Extended ASCII
 Unicode

EBCDIC
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code is an 8-bit code that defines 256 symbols. Given
below is the EBCDIC Tabular column

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ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange is an 8-bit code that specifies character values
from 0 to 127.
ASCII Tabular column
ASCII Code Decimal Value Character

0000 0000 0 Null prompt

0000 0001 1 Start of heading

0000 0010 2 Start of text

0000 0011 3 End of text

0000 0100 4 End of transmit

0000 0101 5 Enquiry

0000 0110 6 Acknowledge

0000 0111 7 Audible bell

0000 1000 8 Backspace

0000 1001 9 Horizontal tab

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0000 1010 10 Line Feed

Extended ASCII
Extended American Standard Code for Information Interchange is an 8-bit code that specifies
character values from 128 to 255.

Extended ASCII Tabular column

Unicode
Unicode Worldwide Character Standard uses 4 to 32 bits to represent letters, numbers and symbol.
Unicode Tabular Column

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4. Concept of Data Processing

Data is defined as any collection of facts. Thus, sales reports, inventory figures, test scores, customers’
names and addresses, and weather reports are all examples of data. Note that data may be numerical
(e.g, inventory figures and test scores) or they may be numerical (e.g. , names of students and
addresses, drawings).

Data processing is the manipulation of data into a more useful form. It is the modern name for
paperwork and involves the collecting, processing, and distributing of facts and figures to achieve a
desired result. Data processing includes not only numerical calculations but also operations such as
the classification of data and the transmission of data from one place to another. In general, we
assume that these operations are performed by some type of machine or computer, although some

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of them could also be carried out manually. Data processing system refers to the equipment or
devices and procedures by which the result is achieved.

Modern data processing employing machines and other devices falls into two basic categories,
mechanical data processing and electronic data processing. In some data processing operations, all
works is still done using manual procedures. These system employs tools and materials such as
pencils, pens, multiple-copy forms, carbon paper and filling cabinets. Mechanical processing system
use a combination of manual procedures and mechanical equipment. The system uses various devices
such as typewriters, sorters, calculators, collators, tabulators, duplicators, and verifiers. Most of these
system operate on punched cards. In electronic data processing different types of input, output, and
storage devices may be interconnected to an electronic computer to process data. A major difference
between the two categories is that the mechanical systems usually require constant manual
intervention between the different data processing operations, whereas in an electronic system the
different operations are performed automatically with a minimum of manual intervention. The types
of machine employed in either system usually vary from one user to another. However, most of the
general concepts in data processing still remain applicable.

Data Processing Cycle

1. INPUT: In this step the initial data, or output data, are prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electromechanical
devices are used, the input data are punched on cards; but if electronic computers are used, the input
data could be recorded on any of several types of input medium, such as cards, tapes, disks, and so
on.

2. PROCESSING: In this step the input data are changed, and usually combined with other
information, to produce data in more useful form. Thus, paychecks may be calculated from the time
cards, or summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales orders. The processing
step usually involves a sequence of certain basic processing operations.

3. OUTPUT: Here the results of the preceding processing steps are collected. The particular form of
the output data depends on the use of data. For example, output data may be paychecks for
employees, a printed summary of monthly sales for management, or simply data to be stored for
further processing at a later date.

To examine further what these terms mean, let’s consider a familiar situation. During the semester an
instructor give five unit examinations. At the end of the semester the grades must be processed and
the final grade sheet for the class submitted to the department. The input data are the students
names and the five scores. This input is usually recorded in the instructor’s record book, with the
names in alphabetical order. The instructor processes the input data by averaging the five
examinations and then determining the equivalent letter grade of each student. The output data will
consist of the students names and their letter grades, with the names in alphabetical order on the
final grade sheet.

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Expanded Data Processing Cycle

 Origination. Origination is a steps which refers to the process of collecting the original data. An
original recording of the data is called a source document. For example, the source documents for the
determination of student grades are the graded test papers of the students. Note that if there were
any questions concerning the students final letter grade, one could go back to the sources
documents, the students test papers, to see if any error had been made during the processing step.
 Distribution. This step refers to the distribution of the output data. Recordings of the output data
are often called report documents. For example, the report document in the case of student grades is
the class grade sheet which is forwarded to the registrar. The flow line which goes from the
distribution box back to the originating box indicates that report documents may become the source
documents for data processing.
 Storage. Storage is crucial in many data processing procedures. Data processing results are
frequently placed in the storage to be used as input data for further processing at a later date. The
two flow lines between the processing box and storage box indicate the interaction of these two
steps. A unified set of data in storage is called a file. Usually a file consists of a collection of records,
where each record contains similar data items, and a collection of related files is called a data base.

Data processing
Data processing is the collection and manipulation of digital data to produce meaningful
information. Data processing is a form of information processing, which is the modification
(processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer.
The term "Data Processing", or "DP" has also been used to refer to a department within an
organization responsible for the operation of data processing programs.

Data processing functions

Data processing may involve various processes, including:

 Validation – Ensuring that supplied data is correct and relevant.

 Sorting – "arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets."
 Summarization(statistical) or (automatic) – reducing detailed data to its main points.
 Aggregation – combining multiple pieces of data.
 Analysis – the "collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data."
 Reporting – list detail or summary data or computed information.
 Classification – separation of data into various categories.

History
The United States Census Bureau history illustrates the evolution of data processing from manual
through electronic procedures.

Manual data processing

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Although widespread use of the term data processing dates only from the 1950's, data processing
functions have been performed manually for millennia. For example, bookkeeping involves functions
such as posting transactions and producing reports like the balance sheet and the cash flow
statement. Completely manual methods were augmented by the application of mechanical or
electronic calculators. A person whose job was to perform calculations manually or using a calculator
was called a "computer."
The 1890 United States Census schedule was the first to gather data by individual rather
than household. A number of questions could be answered by making a check in the appropriate box
on the form. From 1850 to 1880 the Census Bureau employed "a system of tallying, which, by reason
of the increasing number of combinations of classifications required, became increasingly complex.
Only a limited number of combinations could be recorded in one tally, so it was necessary to handle
the schedules 5 or 6 times, for as many independent tallies." "It took over 7 years to publish the
results of the 1880 census" using manual processing methods.

Automatic data processing

The term automatic data processing was applied to operations performed by means of unit record
equipment, such as Herman Hollerith's application of punched card equipment for the 1890 United
States Census. "Using Hollerith's punchcard equipment, the Census Office was able to complete
tabulating most of the 1890 census data in 2 to 3 years, compared with 7 to 8 years for the 1880
census. It is estimated that using Hollerith's system saved some $5 million in processing costs" in 1890
dollars even though there were twice as many questions as in 1880.

Electronic data processing

Computerized data processing, or Electronic data processing represents a later development, with a
computer used instead of several independent pieces of equipment. The Census Bureau first made
limited use of electronic computers for the 1950 United States Census, using a UNIVAC
I system, delivered in 1952.

Other developments
The term data processing has mostly been subsumed by the more general term information
technology (IT). The older term "data processing" is suggestive of older technologies. For example, in
1996 the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA) changed its name to the Association of
Information Technology Professionals. Nevertheless, the terms are approximately synonymous.

Applications
Commercial data processing
Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively few computational
operations, and a large volume of output. For example, an insurance company needs to keep records
on tens or hundreds of thousands of policies, print and mail bills, and receive and post payments.

Data analysis
In science and engineering, the terms data processing and information systems are considered too
broad, and the term data processing is typically used for the initial stage followed by a data analysis in
the second stage of the overall data handling.

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Data analysis uses specialized algorithms and statistical calculations that are less often observed in a
typical general business environment. For data analysis, software suites like SPSS or SAS, or their free
counterparts such as DAP, gretl or PSPP are often used.

Systems
A data processing system is a combination of machines, people, and processes that for a set
of inputs produces a defined set of outputs. The inputs and outputs are interpreted
as data, facts, information etc. depending on the interpreter's relation to the system.
A term commonly used synonymously with data or storage (codes) processing system is information
system. With regard particularly to electronic data processing, the corresponding concept is referred
to as electronic data processing system.

Examples
Simple example
A very simple example of a data processing system is the process of maintaining a check register.
Transactions— checks and deposits— are recorded as they occur and the transactions are
summarized to determine a current balance. Monthly the data recorded in the register is reconciled
with a hopefully identical list of transactions processed by the bank.
A more sophisticated record keeping system might further identify the transactions— for example
deposits by source or checks by type, such as charitable contributions. This information might be used
to obtain information like the total of all contributions for the year.
The important thing about this example is that it is a system, in which, all transactions are recorded
consistently, and the same method of bank reconciliation is used each time.
Real-world example
This is a flowchart of a data processing system combining manual and computerized processing to
handle accounts receivable, billing, and general ledger.

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