What is a computer?
a computer is a sophisticated electronic calculating machine
that:
Accepts input information,
Processes the information according to a list of internally
stored instructions and
Produces the resulting output information.
Functions performed by a computer are:
Accepting information to be processed as input.
Storing a list of instructions to process the information.
Processing the information according to the list of
instructions.
Providing the results of the processing as output.
What are the functional units of a computer?
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Functional units of a computer
Input unit accepts Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU):
information: •Performs the desired
•Human operators, operations on the input
•Electromechanical devices (keyboard) information as determined
•Other computers by instructions in the memory
Arithmetic Memory
Input & Logic Instr1
Instr2
Instr3
Data1
Output Data2
Control
I/O Processor
Control unit coordinates Stores
Output unit produces various actions information:
results of processing: •Input, •Instructions,
•To a monitor display, •Output •Data
•To a printer •Processing
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Information in a computer -- Instructions
Instructions specify commands to:
Transfer information within a computer (e.g., from memory to
ALU)
Transfer of information between the computer and I/O devices
(e.g., from keyboard to computer, or computer to printer)
Perform arithmetic and logic operations (e.g., Add two numbers,
Perform a logical AND).
A sequence of instructions to perform a task is called a
program, which is stored in the memory.
Processor fetches instructions that make up a program from
the memory and performs the operations stated in those
instructions.
What do the instructions operate upon?
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Information in a computer -- Data
Data are the “operands” upon which instructions operate.
Data could be:
Numbers,
Encoded characters.
Data, in a broad sense means any digital information.
Computers use data that is encoded as a string of binary
digits called bits.
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Input unit
Binary information must be presented to a computer in a specific format. This
task is performed by the input unit:
- Interfaces with input devices.
- Accepts binary information from the input devices.
- Presents this binary information in a format expected by the computer.
- Transfers this information to the memory or processor.
Real world Computer
Memory
Keyboard
Audio input
Input Unit
……
Processor
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Memory unit
Memory unit stores instructions and data.
Recall, data is represented as a series of bits.
To store data, memory unit thus stores bits.
Processor reads instructions and reads/writes data from/to
the memory during the execution of a program.
In theory, instructions and data could be fetched one bit at a
time.
In practice, a group of bits is fetched at a time.
Group of bits stored or retrieved at a time is termed as “word”
Number of bits in a word is termed as the “word length” of a
computer.
In order to read/write to and from memory, a processor
should know where to look:
“Address” is associated with each word location.
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Memory unit (contd..)
Processor reads/writes to/from memory based on the
memory address:
Access any word location in a short and fixed amount of time
based on the address.
Random Access Memory (RAM) provides fixed access time
independent of the location of the word.
Access time is known as “Memory Access Time”.
Memory and processor have to “communicate” with each
other in order to read/write information.
In order to reduce “communication time”, a small amount of
RAM (known as Cache) is tightly coupled with the processor.
Modern computers have three to four levels of RAM units with
different speeds and sizes:
Fastest, smallest known as Cache
Slowest, largest known as Main memory.
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Memory unit (contd..)
Primary storage of the computer consists of RAM units.
Fastest, smallest unit is Cache.
Slowest, largest unit is Main Memory.
Primary storage is insufficient to store large amounts of
data and programs.
Primary storage can be added, but it is expensive.
Store large amounts of data on secondary storage devices:
Magnetic disks and tapes,
Optical disks (CD-ROMS).
Access to the data stored in secondary storage in slower, but
take advantage of the fact that some information may be
accessed infrequently.
Cost of a memory unit depends on its access time, lesser
access time implies higher cost.
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Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
Operations are executed in the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU).
Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction.
Logic operations such as comparison of numbers.
In order to execute an instruction, operands need to be
brought into the ALU from the memory.
Operands are stored in general purpose registers available in
the ALU.
Access times of general purpose registers are faster than the
cache.
Results of the operations are stored back in the memory or
retained in the processor for immediate use.
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Output unit
•Computers represent information in a specific binary form. Output units:
- Interface with output devices.
- Accept processed results provided by the computer in specific binary form.
- Convert the information in binary form to a form understood by an
output device.
Computer Real world
Memory Printer
Graphics display
Speakers
……
Output Unit
Processor
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Control unit
Operation of a computer can be summarized as:
Accepts information from the input units (Input unit).
Stores the information (Memory).
Processes the information (ALU).
Provides processed results through the output units (Output
unit).
Operations of Input unit, Memory, ALU and Output unit are
coordinated by Control unit.
Instructions control “what” operations take place (e.g. data
transfer, processing).
Control unit generates timing signals which determines
“when” a particular operation takes place.
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How are the functional units connected?
•For a computer to achieve its operation, the functional units need to
communicate with each other.
•In order to communicate, they need to be connected.
Input Output Memory Processor
Bus
•Functional units may be connected by a group of parallel wires.
•The group of parallel wires is called a bus.
•Each wire in a bus can transfer one bit of information.
•The number of parallel wires in a bus is equal to the word length of
a computer
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Computer Components: Top-Level View
Software
In order for a user to enter and run an application
program, the computer must already contain some system
software in its memory
System software is a collection of programs that are
executed as needed to perform functions such as
Receiving and interpreting user commands
Running standard application programs such as word
processors, etc, or games
Managing the storage and retrieval of files in
secondary storage devices
Controlling I/O units to receive input information and
produce output results
Software
Translating programs from source form prepared by
the user into object form consisting of machine
instructions
Linking and running user-written application programs
with existing standard library routines, such as
numerical computation packages
System software is thus responsible for the
coordination of all activities in a computing system
Operating System
Operating system (OS)
This is a large program, or actually a collection of routines,
that is used to control the sharing of and interaction among
various computer units as they perform application programs
The OS routines perform the tasks required to assign computer
resource to individual application programs
These tasks include assigning memory and magnetic disk
space to program and data files, moving data between
memory and disk units, and handling I/O operations
In the following, a system with one processor, one disk, and one
printer is given to explain the basics of OS
Assume that part of the program’s task involves reading a
data file from the disk into the memory, performing some
computation on the data, and printing the results
