AUTO-10001 DRIVELINES STUDY GUIDE
DRIVE SHAFTS
Objective #1: Describe the construction and operation of drive shaft components.
Drive shafts transfer power from one major power train component to another, or to the drive wheels.
Drive shafts that transfer power between fixed components, such as the transmission, transfer case and final
drive, are propeller shafts.
Drive shafts that connect between a fixed component and a wheel assembly are half shafts.
The following are examples of drive shaft applications.
In rear-wheel drive (RWD) vehicles, a propeller shaft transfers power from a fixed transmission to the final drive
assembly.
In RWD vehicles with independent rear suspension, a propeller shaft connects the transmission and final drive
assemblies, while halfshafts connect the final drive assembly to the rear wheels.
In front-wheel drive (FWD) applications, halfshafts transfer power from a fixed transaxle to the front wheels.
In four-wheel drive (4WD) applications, the propeller shaft transfers power from a fixed transfer case to front
and rear final drive assemblies.
In many all-wheel drive (AWD) vehicles, the front and rear final drive components affix to the chassis and
halfshafts transfer power from these components to the wheels.
Drive Shaft Components Drive shafts consist of:
a shaft with fixed yokes or splines,
a slip yoke or plunge joint,
universal joints or constant velocity joints and
features to reduce the effects of torque reaction and vibration.
1|Page
AUTO-10001 DRIVELINES STUDY GUIDE
AXLES AND BEARINGS
Objective #1: Identify the common types of axle shafts by bearing types and locations.
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels,
rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. Bearings or bushings are provided
at the mounting points where the axle is supported.
Objective #2: Describe the function of major components of a drive axle assembly.
There are two major types of rear axle housings: removable carrier and integral carrier. Both types support and contain
the differential assembly and drive axles and support the vehicle chassis. Most rear axle assemblies have a cast iron
centre section to support the final drive gear set and differential assembly. The axle tubes are normally pressed into the
centre section and welded. Various flanges may be welded to the axle tubes to provide attachment points for a vehicle's
suspension system, shock absorbers and brake backing plates.
Bearing retainers are used to hold the axle shaft bearings in position in the axle housing . If required, a flat plate is
bolted to a flange on the end of the axle tube to hold the axle shaft bearing in place. On some axles, a bearing retaining
ring is pressed onto the axle shaft to hold the bearing in position on the shaft.
The companion flange is attached to the nose of the final drive pinion gear. The flange provides for connection to the
drive shaft, which transmits torque to the final drive assembly from the transmission or transfer case.
Objective #3: Describe how axle and wheel bearings are retained, adjusted and lubricated.
Check the axle for bends. Place it in V-blocks, rotate it and check its radial runout with a dial indicator. If the axle is bent
more than specified tolerances for the vehicle, it must be replaced. Some manufacturers require replacement if the axle
is bent more than 0.030" (0.76 mm). Others permit a bend of 0.040" (1.0 mm) before requiring replacement. Axle shafts
are hardened and can snap violently if you try to straighten them.
Once you remove the axle, check the shaft for wear at the bearing and seal contact surfaces. If the axles are excessively
worn at their contact points, they must be replaced.
When you reassemble the axle shaft into its housing, check end play with a dial indicator to confirm that it is within
manufacturer's specifications.
1. Mount the indicator so that its plunger is parallel with the centreline of the axle.
2. Push the axle towards the differential case as far as it will go and zero the indicator.
3. Pull the axle out as far as it will come and compare the reading on the indicator to the manufacturer's
specifications for the axle.
2|Page
AUTO-10001 DRIVELINES STUDY GUIDE
DIFFERENTIALS
Objective #1: Describe the purpose, construction and operation of standard differentials.
A differential is required to allow a different turning radius between the two driving wheels while rounding a corner. The
wheel on the inside of the curve must slow down and the outside wheel must speed up to accommodate the different
distances that they must cover.
The differential case houses the differential components. It provides a machined mounting surface for the ring or crown
gear, as well as mounting flanges for the differential carrier bearings, sometimes called side bearings. The case may be
cast as a single assembly, as with an open design differential or it may be a closed differential utilizing a two-piece, split-
case design. Internal surfaces of the case are machined to mate with the differential axle and pinion gears and a hole is
bored for the differential pinion shaft.
The differential pinion shaft is a hardened steel shaft inserted through the case bore to transmit power from the case to
the pinion gears. It also provides an axis of rotation for the pinion gears. There are usually flats milled onto the shaft's
bearing surface to provide lubrication spaces between the shaft and the pinion gears. The shaft is retained in the
differential case by a spring-steel roll pin or a hardened, threaded pin.
Objective #2: Describe the purpose, construction and operation of traction enhancing differentials.
Differential units that direct drive to the wheel with the best traction are classed as traction- enhancing differentials.
Some of the trade names you might be familiar with include:
Posi-Trac,
Sure-Grip,
Limited Slip,
Posi-Drive,
Detroit Locker and
Eaton Locker.
Traction enhancing differentials are often found in the rear final-drive assemblies on rear wheel drive and four wheel
drive vehicles. As new technologies emerge, they are increasingly being used in the front axle of four wheel drive
vehicles, all wheel drive vehicles and a few front wheel drive vehicles.
Traditionally, front axle differentials did not incorporate traction enhancement due to dangerous torque steer
tendencies on uneven traction surfaces. Redesigned front wheel geometry and less aggressive differential designs have
reduced the undesirable side effects, so more front wheel drive adaptations are emerging.
Other applications for traction enhancing differentials are transfer cases of four wheel drive vehicles and inter-axle
differentials in all wheel drive vehicles.
Various methods are used to achieve the traction enhancement. These include:
plate clutches,
cone clutches,
viscous fluid coupling,
worm or planetary gearing and
locking plate or splines.
When a loss of traction occurs at one wheel, reducing differential action provides additional torque to the wheel with
better traction.
The two main categories of traction enhancing differentials are:
differentials that limit differential action and
differentials that eliminate differential action.
3|Page
Objective #3: Perform calculations to determine the influence of a differential on output torque and speeds.
A differential always divides the torque at the ring gear evenly between the two outputs (Figure 18).
Ring gear torque = left wheel torque plus right wheel torque.
The amount of torque delivered depends on the amount of resistance to turning offered by the traction between the
road and the tire. A standard differential cannot deliver more torque than the amount required to overcome the grip of
the tire with the least traction. Once the traction threshold is passed, the tire spins at twice the case speed and torque
to the opposite wheel (or output member) is limited to the amount required to keep the wheel spinning.
A differential always divides the torque at the ring gear evenly between the two outputs (Figure 18). Ring gear torque =
left wheel torque plus right wheel torque. The amount of torque delivered depends on the amount of resistance to
turning offered by the traction between the road and the tire. A standard differential cannot deliver more torque than
the amount required to overcome the grip of the tire with the least traction. Once the traction threshold is passed, the
tire spins at twice the case speed and torque to the opposite wheel (or output member) is limited to the amount
required to keep the wheel spinning.
Objective #4: Describe the lubrication requirements for differentials.
The oil's viscosity must remain relatively stable over a wide range of temperatures. It must not break down at high
temperatures but still remain fluid at low temperatures. 80W-90 weight GL5 oil is commonly used in rear axle
assemblies, but different viscosity ratings may be required for hot climates or very cold weather conditions (Figure 19).
Oxidation Resistance The lubricant must resist oxidation to prevent formation of sludge and varnish at high operating
temperatures. Foaming Anti-foaming agents are added to prevent frothing and foaming as the oil is whipped around by
the gears and other components. Oxidation, water contamination and incorrect lubricant levels contribute to foaming
conditions. Corrosion Resistance Additives to help prevent rust and corrosion caused by water and acids are required.
Seal Compatibility Lubricants must be compatible with the materials used in seals to ensure the seals do not swell and
deteriorate. Seal materials and gear lube additives are chosen carefully to ensure seal longevity.
4|Page
AUTO-10001 DRIVELINES STUDY GUIDE
FINAL DRIVE GEAR SETS
Objective #1: Describe the purpose, design features and operation of final drive gear sets.
Final drive gear sets are the final gear reduction before the differential assembly. The three types of gears used for final
drive gear sets are as follows:
Helical gears are used in many transaxle assemblies.
Hypoid gears are used commonly in RWD and 4WD final drive axle assemblies.
Spiral bevel gears are used mainly in heavy equipment final drive assemblies.
Gear Reduction Final drive gear sets provide a gear reduction at the final drive assembly, whether they are used for a
transaxle assembly, the rear axle of a rear wheel drive vehicle or the front and rear axle assembly of a four wheel drive
truck.
Objective #2: Classify final drive gear sets by ratio, tooth design, number of drive pinion gear bearings and carrier
types.
Gear Types
Three different types of gears are used for final drive gear sets. Two of these gear types, hypoid and helical gear sets, are
common in modern vehicles. The third type is a spiral bevel gear set and is found only in older vehicles or heavy
equipment applications. Another type of gear used in the differential assembly is a bevelled spur gear. Spur gears are the
most basic type of gear and have straight-cut teeth. Bevelled spur gears are used for the differential pinion gears and
axle or side gears.
Bevelled Spur Gears
Bevelled spur gears are used to turn the path of power 90Figure 7 The centrelines of the two gears are on the same
plane. Only one tooth of a spur gear set is fully engaged at a time, which gives these gears a small load-contact area. The
small load-contact area makes them a relatively weak gear set.
Helical Gears Helical gears are the most common type used in front wheel drive vehicles (Figure 8). Since the engine and
transaxle are usually mounted transversely, there is no need to change the direction of power flow. Helical gear sets
transfer power between two shafts or members whose centrelines are parallel.
Objective #3: Calculate final drive gear ratios
To calculate the final drive ratio (gear ratio), divide the number of teeth on the ring gear (driven gear) by the number of
teeth on the drive pinion gear (drive gear).
drive driven = ratio
If a ring gear has 39 teeth on it and its mating drive pinion gear has 13 teeth, then:
drive driven = 13 39 =3.00 :1
All ratios are expressed as some value compared to the number one. Although this example used a whole number ratio
to demonstrate how the formula works, you will rarely find ratios of whole number values in the automotive trade. A
few examples of typical final drive ratios are shown in Table 2
Objective #5: Describe how the final drive gear set support bearings are lubricated.
Remote axle assemblies are generally lubricated by a splash type oiling system. A front or rear axle assembly has a fill
plug located in the lower half of the housing or rear cover for adding lubricant. The correct fluid level can range from
flush with the fill hole to 1.25 cm (1 /2 in) below the hole. Always check manufacturer procedures for correct level and
lubricant type.
When the housing is filled to the proper level, the differential case bearings are partially submerged in gear oil. The drive
pinion shaft and its bearings may or may not be submerged, depending on the angle of the drive pinion shaft.
A vent is necessary to allow for heat expansion and prevent excess pressure against the oil seals. The vent is usually a
threaded or pressed in pipe, fitted with a loosely crimped on cap and located on one axle tube or in the carrier casting
(Figure 22). Off-road applications often have a hose attached to the vent fitting in order to raise the vent up high in the
chassis. This prevents water being drawn in when fording creeks.
5|Page
AUTO-10001 DRIVELINES STUDY GUIDE
FINAL DRIVE GEAR SET ASSEMBLY
Objective #4: Perform calculations for shim selection when installing different types of drive pinion gears.
Pinion Shim Locations The location of the pinion depth shim depends on the pinion mounting. The location also
determines what effect adding or subtracting from the shim size will have on the position of the pinion. Two types of
pinion mounting affect pinion depth shim location, the overhung pinion and the straddle-mounted pinion. Overhung
Pinion The location of a shim on an overhung pinion is behind the rear bearing against the back face of the gear. In this
position, a thicker shim moves the pinion closer to the ring gear, while a thinner one moves it away from the ring gear
(Figure 11).
If you replace a drive pinion that has a ‒1 pinion depth marking with a pinion that has a + 2 marking, you need to change
the shim thickness by 0.003 in. Both the placement of the pinion shim and the manufacturer's instructions for pinion
depth markings determine whether the shim must be thicker or thinner.
6|Page
AUTO-10001 DRIVELINES STUDY GUIDE
DRIVE AXLE ASSEMBLY DIAGNOSIS AND SERVICE
Objective #3: Interpret a hypoid type crown and pinion gear set contact pattern for diagnostic purposes.
Correct Gear Teeth Contact Pattern The pattern on the ring gear teeth should be near the centre of the tooth, along the
pitch line. The patterns on both the drive and coast sides should be aligned and consistent all the way around the ring
gear. If the pattern is inconsistent around the ring gear, this indicates either a runout condition or a defective gear set.
Even when the pattern is not correct, the incorrect pattern should be consistent on every ring gear tooth. A good ring
gear pattern is shown in Figure 5.
When the drive pinion is too far away from the centreline of the ring gear, the pattern on the drive side is high on the
teeth (on the face) and near the heel (Figure 6). On the coast side, the pattern runs high on the teeth and near the toe.
Moving the pinion closer to the centreline of the ring gear causes the high face contact on the drive side to lower and
move toward the centre of the tooth. The high face contact on the coast side lowers and moves toward the centre of the
tooth.
When the pinion is too close to the centreline of the ring gear, the pattern is low (on the flank) and in at the toe on the
drive side and low and out at the heel on the coast side (Figure 7). Moving the pinion farther away from the ring gear,
causes contact on the drive side to rise and move toward the centre of the tooth and the contact on the coast side also
rises and moves toward the centre of the tooth. Pinion depth is correct when the contact on the drive side is directly
opposite the contact on the coast side and close to the centre of the tooth.
7|Page
