Short Stories: General Short Story: A fictional tale of a length that is too

short to publish in a single volume like a novel. Short stories are usually
between five and sixty pages; as a result, they can be read in a single
sitting. Usually, short stories concentrate on a single event with only one
or two characters. The short story has three elements: plot,
characterization, and setting. In addition, short stories also contain other
devices/features including: theme, conflict, point of view, suspense,
foreshadowing, flashback, deus ex machina, and in medias res. Theme is
so vital to the short story, however, that some critics consider it the fourth
element, rather than a device or feature. Short Story Elements A. Plot: The
events of the story or the series of actions that make up the story are
referred to as the plot. Basically, the plot is what happens in the story.
Traditionally, it is divided into five parts. 1. Introduction: The reader meets
the characters and discovers the setting. Reader interest is aroused here.
The conflict that drives the story’s action is discovered at the end of the
introduction, with the initiating incident. 2. Rising action: Builds up the
story (the longest part)— a series of steps that lead to the climax. You get
more information about conflict and character here. 3. Climax: Here, the
reader finds out what happens to the conflict, or how the conflict might be
resolved. The story may not yet be finished, but the reader now has a
good understanding of what way it is going to go. 4. Falling Action: The
plot begins to wrap up in this section of the story, which is usually brief.
5. Denouement/Conclusion/Resolution: This part follows quickly after the
climax and provides the last pieces of information for the reader.
“Denouement” is French for “unknotting”; you may therefore think of
denouement as the “unknotting” or “untangling” of the plot. Other words
for denouement are conclusion or resolution (think about it as the
resolution of the climax). However, not all conclusions provide resolution.
5.A. There are four types of conclusions and they have a variety of names:
1. Expository Happy: All loose ends are tied up and explained and the
ending is happy. 2. Expository Sad: All loose ends are tied up and
explained and the ending is sad.

3. Surprise or Twist: Something happens that the reader does not expect
at all. 4. Unresolved/Indeterminate/Cliffhanger: The reader is left with
questions and has to, in part, supply the ending him or herself. Some
loose ends are left to dangle. 5.B. Anti-Climax: A dull or disappointing
ending to something after increasing excitement. For example: After the
weeks of preparation, the concert itself was a bit of an anticlimax. In
connection to a story or novel, it means an ending that doesn’t measure
up to the plot events that precede it (the ending is anti-climactic). Plot
Diagram: Also known as Freytag’s Pyramid, the story diagram or plot
diagram, was invented in 1864 by Gustav Freytag to visually represent the
five plot parts and their relationship with one another. Modern stories may
or may not tidily fit Freytag’s Pyramid.

B. Characterization: The collection of characters, or people, in a short

story is called its characterization. A character, of course, is usually a
person in a story, but it can also be an animal (think about Flounder the
fish in Disney’s Ariel or Simba in Disney’s The Lion King or the dogs in 8
Below). Character Types  Protagonist: The main character in the story.
The protagonist is usually, but not always, a “good guy.”  Antagonist: The
force against the protagonist. The antagonist is usually another character,
but not always, especially if the conflict is “person against self.” The
antagonist is usually described as “the bad guy”, although that
description doesn’t work if the conflict is person against self or person
against environment.  Flat: This is a minor character with one or maybe
two sides to the personality. These characters might not seem very
realistic or life-like because so little is known about them.  Round: These
characters are believable and complex people with several sides to their
personality. They are lifelike and behave like real people would, if real
people were in those same situations.

 Dynamic: Also known as a kinetic character, a dynamic character

changes in some important way because of plot events. For example: a
cruel old man might see the error of his ways and become generous and
kind, or a gentle girl becomes vicious and angry because her parents
divorce.  Static: These characters are the opposite of dynamic
characters. These people don’t change through the course of a story. They
have the same personality throughout.  Stereotypical: Also known as
stock, these characters are people who are easily recognized as “types”. It
wouldn’t matter in which story they appear, they are always the same. For
example, the old witch-like woman, the geeky scientist, the airhead, and
the dumb jock characters are all stereotypical, or stock, characters. In this
sense, they are also clichés.* (A cliché is an over-used expression, like
“light as a feather,” or an over-used idea, like the stereotypical characters
just discussed.)  Character Foil: A character foil, or simply “foil”, occurs
when two characters balance each other in some way; they are almost
like two halves of a whole person. This is when a character is portrayed as
opposite of another character in a particular way. By putting the two
characters next to each other, the different characteristic is emphasized.
This helps readers recognize particular characteristics. A good person
might be a foil for an evil person, for example.  Caricature: A character
in a piece of literature who has very exaggerated characteristics, usually
for comic effect. In a way, a caricature is an extreme form of stereotype
(NT). Character Analysis: The author may choose any of six ways to
reveal a character to the reader. The reader must therefore be prepared
to watch for “clues” about each character in these same six ways: 1.
Physical appearance 2. Things the character says 3. Things the character
does (actions) 4. Things the character thinks 5. Things other characters
say about the character 6. Author information Character Sketch: A
character sketch is a description of a character’s moral and personality
qualities, written in paragraph form with specific examples from the story
in question. Usually, the character terms (see above) are used in the
course of the description. Physical appearance and dress (if showing
something about personality) are sometimes described as well. C. Setting:
The author may choose to state the setting clearly or leave it to the
reader to infer from textual clues (such as weather). There are two parts
to a complete setting: emotional and physical. The mood* (or
atmosphere*) of a story is the emotional setting, so readers need to
concentrate on words that evoke feeling and emotion. The time, place,
and season comprise the physical setting, so readers need to concentrate
on words that describe physical details. Short Story Devices and Features
A. Theme*: The message of the story, stated in one or two complete
sentences. When a person describes a story’s theme, the person is
describing what can be learned about life and/or people from the story.
Theme is so important, it is often described as the fourth element of the
short story. Sometimes theme is confused with “the moral” of the story.
Also, do not confuse theme with ‘the topic’ which is the subject a piece of
writing is about. For example, the topic of Scooby Doo is solving
mysteries, yet one theme of Scooby Doo is that good triumphs over evil.
Abandonment Alienation Ambition American Dream Birth/Childhood
Coming of Age Commoditization Commercialism Commerce Community
Cruelty Death Education Ethics Experience Fall from Grace Family Fate
Freedom Futility Gender Grief Growth and initiation Guilt Heroism Hope
Human relations Identity Illness Individual & Nature Individual & Society
Individual & God Innocence Isolation Journey & Struggle Justice Love &
Friendship Memory Nationalism Nature Oppression Parenthood Pride Race
Regret Rejection Religion Responsibility Revenge Sacrifice Science &
Technology Sex & Sensuality Social Class Spirituality Stages of Life
Success Suffering Survival Time Tradition Violence Work It has been
argued that there are anywhere between 3 and 40 main themes in
literature that continue to be explored by each successive generation of
writers. No one knows for what the real number is--it depends on who you
ask--but below is a list, not necessarily inclusive, of the most common
ones. There are many variations, and there are often overlaps as well.
So, right or wrong, in no particular order, here they are. 1. Man Struggles
Against Nature: Man is always at battle with human nature, whether the
drives described are sexual, material or against the aging process itself.
2. Man Struggles Against Societal Pressure: Mankind is always struggling
to determine if societal pressure is best for living. Check out books like
Revolutionary Road or Mrs. Dalloway for examples of characters who know
how society says they should live, but feel society’s dictation is contrary
to what makes them happy. 3. Man Struggles to Understand Divinity:
Mankind tries to understand and make peace with God, but satisfaction is
elusive and difficult. 4. Crime Does Not Pay: A popular theme played out
in books throughout time is the concept that honesty is honored and
criminals will eventually be caught. Crime and Punishment and "The
Telltale Heart” are two stories written on this theme. 5. Overcoming
Adversity: Many books laud characters who accept a tough situation and
turn it into triumph. Scarlett O’Hara in Gone With the Wind exemplifies a
shrewd person who finds a way to come out on top despite failed
relationships and an economic depression after the Civil War. 6.
Friendship is Dependent on Sacrifice: This is the idea that you can’t have
friends if you don’t act like a friend. 7. The Importance of Family:
Sacrifices for family are honored and explored, as are the family bonds
that survive adversity. 8. Yin and Yang: Just when you think life is finally
going to be easy, something bad happens to balance it all out. 9. Love is
the Worthiest of Pursuits: Many writers assert the idea that love conquers
all, appealing to the romantic side of us.

10. Death is Part of the Life Cycle: Literary works with this theme show
how death and life and intricately connected. 11. Sacrifices Bring Reward:
Sacrifices and hard work pay off in the end, despite the challenges along
the way. 12. Human Beings All Have the Same Needs: From Montagues to
Capulets in Romeo and Juliet or the characters in S.E. Hinton’s The
Outsiders, book after book asserts that rich or poor, educated or dumb, all
human beings need love and other basic needs met. 13. The Great
Journey: This follows a character or characters through a series of episodic
adventures as they travel. It may be a sad story or a happy story, or it
may even be comedic. Huckleberry Finn, Heart of Darkness, The
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and The Odyssey are good examples. In
film, this theme can be seen in Apocalypse Now and National Lampoon's
Vacation. 14. Loss of Innocence: Sometimes called the "coming of age
story," this most commonly introduces an “innocent” character to the evil
or complexity of the real/adult world. In literature, we might look at David
Copperfied or most of the Nick Adams stories by Ernest Hemingway, like
"Indian Camp" and "The End of Something." In film, we might look at
Stand by Me. 15. The Noble Sacrifice: The sacrifice can be for any reason
except self--a loved one, an enemy, a group of people, the whole of
humanity, a dog--but the bottom line is that the protagonist sacrifices
himself or herself in an effort to save others. In literature, this is
demonstrated in the story of Jesus in the New Testament and King Arthur
in Mallory's Morte d’Artur. This theme is used is used in the films Glory,
Armageddon, The Green Mile, and in just about any war movie where the
hero dies gloriously. 16. The Great Battle: The Iliad and A Tale of Two
Cities are classic examples of this theme. It is about people or groups of
people in conflict. It is sometimes a good vs. evil story like 1984 by
George Orwell, but not always. The film The War of the Roses, starring
Kathleen Turner and Michael Douglas, is an example of a battle in which
neither character is wholly good or evil. In theatre, we see this theme at
work in Westside Story and Les Miserables. We often see this theme in
horror or science fiction, like in Alien and Terminator, where the antagonist
(a monster, creature, human, alien, computer, etc.) is trying to kill the
protagonist, who must fight to stay alive and/or defeat the antagonist.
Sub-categories would be person vs. person, person vs. nature, person vs.
society, person vs. technology and etc. 17. The Fall From Grace: This
theme shows us people going where only God should go, doing what only
God is meant to do, or attempting to do something that human beings
should never do. This is always followed by misfortune, whether it is the
direct result of their action or an act of God. We see this in the tales of
Coyote’s theft of fire in the Native American tradition, or in the story of the
Tower of Babel and the Garden of Eden in The Old Testament. Other
examples would be the Prometheus myth, Pandora’s Box, and the story of
Icarus. Frankenstein by Mary Shelly is another work exploring this theme,
and we have seen it at work in the films Jurassic Park and Westworld. 18.
Love and Friendship: Romeo and Juliet is a classic love story, as is the
story of Lancelot and Guenivere. The films You’ve Got Mail and Message
in a Bottle are also love stories. The ending may be be happy, sad, or
bittersweet, but the main them is romantic love. Also included in this
theme is platonic love--friendship--like in the movies Wrestling Ernest
Hemingway and Midnight Cowboy. All Romance novels, whether straight
or gay, fit into this category. All “buddy films” like Butch Cassidy and the
Sundance Kid and Thelma and Louise fit into this category. 19. The
Capriciousness of Fate: Greek tragedies fit this category. Often, there is a
major reversal of fortune. It could be from good-to-bad or from bad-to-
good. Oedipus Rex is a classic work that explores the concept of fate and
destiny, having an unhappy ending.

Cinderella is also a reversal of fortune story, but has a happy ending. In

film, we have seen this theme at work in Pretty Woman. The common
element is that there is some force guiding the person’s life over which he
or she has no control. 20. Revenge: The subject is obvious, but the
outcome differs. Sometimes the outcome is good, like in the movies
Revenge of the Nerds or Animal House. Sometimes the outcome is bad,
as in Macbeth and Moby Dick. Other movies based on this them are
Revenge, staring Anthony Quinn and Kevin Costner, and Payback, starring
Mel Gibson. 21. The Big Trick; In this one, someone or some group of
people intentionally trick someone else. Rumplestiltskin and Little Red
Riding Hood are in this category. Stone Soup is an old story in which
several men trick the inhabitants of a village into providing them with
food. This theme was evident in Snatch, starring Brad Pitt, and The Sting,
staring Robert Redford and Paul Newman. 22. The Big Mystery: Something
unexplained happened and it is the protagonist’s job to find an
explanation for it. The story of Sherlock Holmes are good examples, as
are the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew mysteries. In film, we have seen it
Silence of the Lambs and The Maltese Falcon, and it took a comedic turn
in Clue and The Pink Panther. Almost all police and detective dramas work
within this form, as do most espionage and spy thrillers. Agatha Christy
and Tom Clancy work within this form. 23. Even More Themes: People are
out of place in Nature and need technology to survive • People are
destroying nature and themselves with uncontrolled technology • Society
and a person's inner nature are always at war • Social influences
determine a person's final destiny • A person's identity is determined by
place in society • You can't change who you are • A child must go through
a series of obstacles before becoming a grownup • Everyone had an inner
child. Sometimes it holds us back, sometimes it brings us happiness • A
person grows by facing obstacles • Enjoy life now because we all die too
soon • By the time we understand life, there is too little left to live • Death
is part of living, giving life its final meaning • Sometimes people do stupid
things to impress other people • Honesty is/isn’t always the best policy •
Family is the most important thing • Faith is the most important thing • A
good friend is hard to find • Don't judge a book by its cover • Things
aren't always what they seem • We can change the future. (Free will) •
The future is already set for us. (Fate) • Every action has a reaction • The
fittest are most able to survive • With freedom comes responsibility • It is
important to be your own person • Love is stronger than hate • Good is
stronger than evil. B. Conflict: Conflict drives the plot forward. The reader
discovers the conflict by the end of the introduction with the initiating
incident, which is an event that demonstrates the conflict to the reader
and begins the rising action. Either internal or external conflict can be the
main conflict of a story and therefore the primary driver of the plot: 
Internal Conflict: When the conflict is inside a character in a short story/
novel as an internal struggle. Usually characters, like real people, have
conflicting fears and goals that cause them to behave in certain ways.
These secret conflicts (secret from the other characters in the text)
represent the character’s internal conflict. The reader, of course, is aware
of the internal conflict because he/she can see the character’s thoughts.
 External Conflict: When the conflict is outside a character in a short
story/ novel. External conflict is the opposite of internal conflict, in that
the conflict is obvious to all the other characters in the story, as well as
the reader. External conflict is best described as the adversities faced by
the character during the plot.

Additionally, there are four different categories of conflict:  Person versus

person  Person versus self  Person versus environment  Person versus
the supernatural/machine C. Point of View: The writer selects the point of
view from which to tell the story that best suits his/her intentions as a
writer  First Person: “I” is the central character and tells his or her own
story.  Second Person: The story is told about “you”; for example, “You
could see the anger in her eyes.”  Third Person—where the point of view
can be one of: o Omniscient: Characters are referred to as “he” and “she”,
and the reader knows what is going on in their heads. All characters’
thoughts are made clear in the text. o Limited Omniscient: Characters are
referred to as “he” and “she”, and the reader knows what is going on in
some of their heads. The remaining characters are treated in the objective
fashion. o Objective: The story is about “he” or “she”, and the author
records action objectively, as a movie camera would. The reader does not
see any of the character’s thoughts (doesn’t get inside their heads). D.
Deus ex Machina: From the Latin "god out of the machine." This device
refers to any artificial device that is not a natural extension of the plot
that allows for an easy–and unbelievable—resolution of conflict. Deus ex
machina is an improbable plot event. E. In Medias Res: Beginning in the
middle of the action. A sample beginning to such a story: “I saw the punch
coming but couldn't duck in time. I collapsed to the floor, nose gushing
red, clotted blood.” F. Flashback: When a character thinks back to an
event that occurred before the story began. Sometimes flashbacks are
written as separate “interrupter” sections within a novel. Flashbacks are
also used in short stories. G. Foreshadowing: A hint of events to come.
Also used extensively in both novels and short stories. H. Suspense:
Anxiety or apprehension resulting from an uncertain, undecided, or
mysterious situation. Suspense is when the writer creates excited
anticipation of an approaching climax in the reader.

Reference list

1. Short Story: General Mirrors school-teaching handouts such as

“Short Story and Novel Terms 11” (e.g., hosted on WordPress and
Docsity) (CISO Live Updates, docsity.com)
Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short Story and Novel Terms 11. Retrieved
from https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf

2. A. Plot The five-part structure (introduction, rising action,

climax, falling action, resolution) aligns with Freytag’s Pyramid,
rooted in Gustav Freytag’s Die Technik des Dramas (Wikipedia,
Backstage)

Freytag, G. (1863). Die Technik des Dramas [The Technique of Drama]. (E.
J. MacEwan, Trans., 1894). Chicago: Scott, Foresman.

3. B. Characterization The definitions of characterization

(direct/indirect) match standard literary theory, e.g., Wikipedia’s
entry on Characterization (Wikipedia)

Wikipedia. (2025). Characterization. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization

4. C. Setting Matches standard conceptual definitions, e.g.,

Wikipedia’s “Setting (narrative)” article (Wikipedia)

Wikipedia. (2025). Setting (narrative). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setting_(narrative)

5. Short Story Devices and Features (Theme, Point of View, Conflict,

etc.) The list of narrative devices is typical of teaching handouts
and literary summaries, appearing in multiple “Short Story and
Novel Terms” documents (Studocu, Course Hero)
Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short Story and Novel Terms 11. Retrieved
from https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf

6. Point of View Coverage aligns with general literary instruction,

not easily traced to one source—likely the same teaching handout.)
Same citation as above. Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short
Story and Novel Terms 11. Retrieved from
https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf

7. Conflict Typical educational content about conflict appears in

related handouts and summaries (Studocu, Course Hero)

Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short Story and Novel Terms 11. Retrieved
from https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf

8. Foreshadowing Included among devices in teaching handouts, as

above. Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short Story and Novel Terms
11. Retrieved from
https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf

9. Flashback Common narrative technique, included in same

resource. Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short Story and Novel Terms
11. Retrieved from
https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf
10. In Medias Res / Deus Ex Machina Typical literary devices
listed in the handout. Short Story handout. (n.d.). Short Story and
Novel Terms 11. Retrieved from
https://cisoliveupdates.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/short-story-and-
novel.pdf