Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Concrete is one of the most widely used materials in construction due to its strength,

versatility, and durability. A key part of concrete is the coarse aggregate, usually

made up of gravel or crushed stone, which greatly affects its mechanical properties

and structural behavior. However, as concrete demand increases, so does the depletion

of natural resources and the environmental impact of extracting traditional aggregates.

This situation has led the construction industry to look for sustainable alternatives that

support eco-friendly practices and efficient resource use.

One of the promising alternatives is the use of agricultural waste like coconut shells.

These are abundant, renewable, and lightweight. Coconut shells, often thrown away

after use, can be repurposed as partial replacements for coarse aggregates. Previous

studies have explored the use of coconut shells in concrete, identifying potential

benefits like reduced density and lower costs (Gunasekaran et al., 2011; Olanipekun et

al., 2006). However, concerns about their high-water absorption and weak bonding

with cement paste have limited their use in structural applications (Uddin et al., 2017).

To boost the performance of coconut shell aggregates, researchers have tried various

treatment methods. For example, heat treatment can lower moisture content, while

soaking in saltwater (NaCl) can improve surface properties and bonding (Kumar &

Singh, 2015). However, many studies only look at one treatment method at a time and

do not systematically compare their effectiveness. The benefits of combining

treatments such as soaking in saltwater followed by heat treatment are still largely

unstudied.
At present, there is not enough experimental data comparing untreated, heat-treated,

salt-treated, and hybrid-treated coconut shell aggregates under the same conditions.

This research aims to fill that gap by assessing the compressive strength and density

of concrete mixes with a 10% replacement of coarse aggregates by weight using

differently treated coconut shells. The study will help identify the most effective

treatment technique for improving concrete performance and promoting sustainable

material use.

This investigation seeks to provide practical insights into making the best use of

coconut shells in concrete, potentially turning agricultural waste into a valuable

resource for construction. By looking at various treatment methods, the study aims to

support sustainability goals and progress in green civil engineering practices.

Statement of the Problem

With rising temperatures and a growing demand for sustainable building materials, it

is important to find alternative solutions that improve thermal efficiency and support

environmental conservation. Lime-based whitewash has been used for passive cooling

for a long time, but the use of powdered seashells, a waste material rich in calcium

carbonate, is still not fully explored, especially for reflective roof coatings. This study

aims to examine the qualities and performance of seashell-lime whitewash when

applied to galvanized iron roofing panels, focusing on solar reflectance, thermal

emittance, and water absorption.

The study specifically seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the solar reflectance performance of roof surfaces coated with heat-

reflective whitewash made from powdered lime and seashells?

 2. What is the thermal emittance performance of roof surfaces coated with the

same mixture?

3. What is the water absorption performance of roof surfaces coated with the

seashell-lime whitewash?

4. Is there a significant difference observed in solar reflectance among the

samples?

5. Is there a significant difference observed in thermal emittance among the

samples?

6. Is there a significant difference observed in water absorption among the

samples?

Hypothesis of the Study

This study suggests that the amount of seashell-lime whitewash applied to

galvanized iron roofing panels could affect their solar reflectance, thermal emittance,

and water absorption properties. The null hypothesis claims that there is no significant

difference in solar reflectance, thermal emittance, and water absorption among the

roofing panels coated with various seashell-lime whitewash ratios. On the other hand,

the alternative hypothesis states that there is a significant difference in at least one of

the measured properties solar reflectance, thermal emittance, or water absorption

among the roofing panels coated with different seashell-lime whitewash ratios.

Theoretical Framework

This study is based on two main theories: the Theory of Passive Cooling and

the Circular Economy Theory. The Theory of Passive Cooling focuses on using non-

mechanical methods like reflective coatings, building orientation, and material choice
to lower indoor temperatures and energy use. It argues that materials with high solar

reflectance and thermal emittance can greatly reduce heat gain in buildings. On the

other hand, the Circular Economy Theory encourages reusing, recycling, and

repurposing waste materials to lessen environmental harm and improve sustainability.

By using waste materials like powdered seashells in construction, this theory

encourages innovation in material reuse and addresses environmental issues.

This study applies these theories to support the development and use of seashell-lime

whitewash as a passive cooling solution and a sustainable building practice. The

Theory of Passive Cooling helps assess the thermal performance of the coatings,

while the Circular Economy Theory positions the reuse of seashell waste as a

practical alternative to traditional materials. Similar to previous studies that used

waste-based additives in concrete or coatings, this research examines improvements

in functional performance. However, it specifically focuses on seashell-lime

whitewash for galvanized iron roofing, looking at both thermal behavior and water

absorption. Therefore, this study reinforces and expands on existing theories by

merging environmental sustainability with practical, low-cost ways to manage heat.

Significance of the Study

This study is important because it tackles the challenges of rising temperatures

and environmental waste. It looks into using powdered seashells and lime as a

sustainable whitewash for roofing. The results could lead to affordable solutions for

passive cooling and promote the reuse of marine waste. This would aid environmental

preservation and improve energy efficiency in construction.

 Engineering Students and Researchers. This study can be a helpful resource

for engineering students and researchers who are interested in sustainable building

materials and passive cooling systems. It provides valuable data and experimental

methods for future innovations in eco-friendly construction.

Construction Industry Professionals. Engineers, architects, and builders might

find seashell-lime whitewash to be a natural and affordable alternative to commercial

reflective paints. This information could guide environmentally friendly design

choices and lower the use of synthetic coatings.

Government and Policy Makers. The findings could help government agencies

and local government units create or encourage policies related to green infrastructure

and waste reuse. Using seashell-based materials in public housing programs could

enhance energy efficiency and support goals for environmental sustainability.

Environmental and Civic Organizations. This research backs initiatives aimed

at reducing marine waste and promoting resource recovery. Organizations can use

these findings to push for community-based recycling and construction practices that

lower ecological footprints.

Local Communities and Entrepreneurs. Small businesses and coastal

communities might find opportunities in gathering, processing, and selling powdered

seashells as construction additives. This can create jobs and support sustainable

economic development in these areas.

Scope and Limitation

This study looks at the thermal and reflective performance of whitewash coatings

made from different ratios of powdered seashells and lime, especially when applied to

galvanized iron (GI) roofing panels. The main factors we examine are solar
reflectance, thermal emittance, and water absorption. The research includes creating

whitewash mixtures with five different seashell-lime ratios, applying them to roofing

samples, and subjecting these samples to both laboratory and outdoor tests. We follow

standardized procedures for testing, including ASTM C1549 for solar reflectance,

ASTM C1371 for thermal emittance, and ASTM C642 for water absorption.

The study faces several limitations beyond our control. Weather conditions, like cloud

cover and humidity, can affect the accuracy of the field data collected during testing.

The experiment is limited to a specific roofing material, galvanized iron panels, and

does not include other common surfaces like concrete or clay tiles. Moreover, we do

not assess long-term durability, color retention, or resistance to biological growth due

to time and resource constraints. The accuracy of instrument calibration and the

consistency of the application thickness may also lead to slight variability in the

results.

Definition of Terms

This section defines key technical terms used in the study to ensure clarity and

improve understanding for readers. The definitions provide both conceptual and

operational meanings, especially for terms that are important to the topic and

methodology of the research.

Galvanized Iron (GI) Panel. This term refers to a type of roofing material made of

iron coated with zinc to prevent corrosion. In this study, it serves as the test surface

for different whitewash mixtures.

Hydrated Lime (Ca(OH)₂). This term refers to a white powder produced by adding

water to quicklime (calcium oxide). It is used in whitewash formulations for its

reflective and binding properties.

Passive Cooling. This term describes non-mechanical methods to lower indoor

temperatures in buildings. In this study, it refers to using heat-reflective whitewash to

reduce heat absorption from sunlight.

Powdered Seashells. This term refers to ground marine shells high in calcium

carbonate (CaCO₃). In this study, they act as a reflective additive mixed with lime to

create whitewash.

Solar Reflectance. This term refers to the percentage of solar energy reflected by a

surface. A higher reflectance means less heat is absorbed. In this study, it is measured

using a Portable Solar Reflectometer according to ASTM C1549 standards.

Thermal Emittance. This term describes the ability of a surface to release absorbed

heat as infrared radiation. In the study, it is measured with a Portable Emissometer

based on ASTM C1371.

Water Absorption. This term refers to the amount of water a material can hold after

being submerged. It is used in this study to evaluate the coating's resistance to

moisture and is measured according to ASTM C642 standards.

 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of literature and studies relevant to

the thermal and reflective properties of building materials, specifically the use of

powdered seashells and lime in whitewash formulations. It draws on recent findings,

existing technologies, environmental frameworks, and performance analyses to

support the scientific foundation of this study. By organizing the review thematically,

the chapter establishes a logical progression of concepts that contextualize the

experimental research.

Related Literature

1. Sustainable Construction and Passive Cooling

Sustainable construction involves designing buildings with environmentally friendly

materials and systems to reduce energy consumption. Passive cooling is one such

strategy that reduces heat gain without relying on mechanical equipment (Ghosh &

Mandal, 2018; Ahmed et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2021). Materials that reflect solar

radiation are integral to this approach, making reflective whitewash coatings

increasingly relevant in tropical countries.

2. Reflective Whitewash Coatings

Whitewash coatings are valued for their affordability and high albedo. Traditional

lime whitewash, when applied on roofs and walls, reflects a substantial portion of

sunlight, lowering indoor temperatures (Nguyen et al., 2017; Ochieng et al., 2020; Ali

& Al-Taie, 2015). These coatings have been explored further with additives to

improve reflectivity and durability.

Additives for Enhanced Performance. Additives such as ceramic powders and natural

waste products like eggshells or clay have been found to increase solar reflectance

and moisture resistance (Fang et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2022; Manoharan et al., 2020).

3. Powdered Seashells as a Building Material

Powdered seashells are primarily composed of calcium carbonate, a compound known

for its whiteness and reflective properties. Studies have highlighted their potential in

concrete and cement replacement (Gunasekaran et al., 2011; Ibrahim et al., 2016;

Oladele et al., 2014).

Reflective Potential of Seashells. Some researchers found that seashells ground to a

fine powder can be integrated into coatings to increase near-infrared reflectivity (Fang

et al., 2017; Ramadhan & Ariestadi, 2025; Javier & Santos, 2021).

4. Calcium Carbonate in Reflective Coatings

Calcium carbonate reflects both UV and infrared radiation, contributing to its use in

heat-reflective coatings (Chen et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021). It also

provides durability when used as a filler in paints and plasters.

Marine Sources of Calcium Carbonate. Marine waste, particularly mollusk shells,

offer a sustainable and abundant source of this compound, supporting efforts in green

construction (Gatchalian et al., 2016; De la Cruz & Medina, 2019; Lopez & Tamayo,

2023).

5. Thermal Emittance in Roofing Materials

Thermal emittance measures a material's ability to release absorbed heat. High-

emittance materials contribute to passive cooling by reducing heat retention (ASTM

C1371, 2020; Chinnadurai & Ramasamy, 2020; Fang et al., 2017).

Whitewash and Emittance. Studies show that lime-based coatings exhibit high

emittance values, and performance improves with certain natural additives (Ahmed et

al., 2018; Ghosh & Mandal, 2018; Ramadhan & Ariestadi, 2025).

6. Water Absorption and Durability

Water absorption influences the longevity and performance of building coatings. High

absorption can lead to surface degradation, mold growth, and reduced thermal

performance (ASTM C642, 2020; Lopez & Tamayo, 2023; Villanueva, 2022).

Moisture Resistance from Natural Binders. Natural binders such as starch or cassava

paste can enhance the adhesion and moisture resistance of lime-based coatings (Ali &

Al-Taie, 2015; Lopez & Tamayo, 2023; Javier & Santos, 2021).

7. Local Waste Utilization in Construction

The integration of local waste materials like seashells into construction aligns with

sustainability goals and community-based development (De la Cruz & Medina, 2019;

Gatchalian et al., 2016; Fang et al., 2017).

Circular Economy in Construction. These practices reduce landfill waste and lower

material costs while creating livelihood opportunities (Nguyen et al., 2017; Ramadhan

& Ariestadi, 2025; Lopez & Tamayo, 2023).

8. Passive Cooling in Tropical Architecture

In hot climates, passive cooling methods significantly impact energy consumption.

Cool roofs using reflective coatings are among the most effective strategies in tropical

regions (Ghosh & Mandal, 2018; Ahmed et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2019).

9. ASTM Standards and Performance Testing

Standard testing methods are essential to ensure the reliability of performance data in

construction materials. ASTM C1549 for reflectance and ASTM C1371 for emittance

are widely accepted for evaluating roof coatings (ASTM, 2020; Kenton, 2024; Chen

et al., 2019).

10. Innovation in Eco-Coatings

Recent innovations focus on blending local, natural resources into coatings that meet

or exceed the performance of commercial products. This includes using clay, coconut

fibers, and calcium carbonate-based materials (Zhou et al., 2022; Nguyen et al., 2017;

Manoharan et al., 2020).

11. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Natural Coatings

Natural reflective coatings offer competitive thermal performance at lower costs

compared to synthetic paints (Fang et al., 2017; Ghosh & Mandal, 2018; Liu et al.,

2021).

12. Environmental Benefits of Shell Reuse

Utilizing seashell waste reduces marine pollution and landfill dependency. This

supports broader environmental goals and provides raw materials for eco-innovation

(Ibrahim et al., 2016; De la Cruz & Medina, 2019; Fang et al., 2017).

13. Challenges in Scaling Eco-Materials

Despite benefits, eco-materials face challenges in mass adoption due to variability in

quality and availability (Gatchalian et al., 2016; Ramadhan & Ariestadi, 2025;

Chinnadurai & Ramasamy, 2020).

14. Traditional Knowledge and Modern Application

Many reflective practices draw from traditional techniques like whitewashing, which

are being refined through modern research and testing (Ochieng et al., 2020; Ali &

Al-Taie, 2015; Lopez & Tamayo, 2023)

15. Comparative Analysis with Commercial Coatings

Studies have shown that whitewash enhanced with natural additives performs

comparably to some commercial coatings in reflectance and durability, making them

viable for low-cost housing (Villanueva, 2022; Javier & Santos, 2021; Fang et al.,

2017).

Related Studies

TSeveral recent studies have looked into using reflective materials in building

envelopes to improve thermal performance, especially in tropical areas. A study by

Ramadhan and Ariestadi (2025) evaluated seashell composites on galvalume roofing.

They observed a notable temperature drop of up to 5°C in indoor spaces. This study

backs the idea that calcium carbonate-rich marine waste can enhance heat insulation

in roofing materials.

Fang et al. (2017) researched integrating seashell waste into white base coatings. They

found near-infrared reflectance values greater than 80%. Their results confirm the

reflective potential of powdered seashells and support the use of such materials in

eco-coatings.

Javier and Santos (2021) conducted a lab study on shell-lime composite panels. They

discovered that adding shell powder improved surface reflectivity and reduced

moisture absorption, which closely matches the goals of this research.

Manoharan et al. (2020) tested clay-lime roof coatings in India. They concluded that

mixing them with inorganic additives increased their solar reflectance. Their results

highlight the potential of combining natural and waste materials for effective cool

roof solutions.

A feasibility study by De la Cruz and Medina (2019) in a coastal town in the

Philippines proposed using discarded mollusk shells in green construction. This

highlighted the local availability and potential for community-based waste-

repurposing projects.

Villanueva (2022) conducted a comparative field study in Metro Manila. Rooftops

painted with a lime-and-shell mixture had lower midday surface temperatures than

those with commercial acrylic coatings, showing promising real-world results.

Gatchalian et al. (2016) studied reflective roof coatings for disaster-resilient housing.

They suggested using marine waste materials due to their low cost, environmental

benefits, and local availability in coastal areas.

Lopez and Tamayo (2023) explored different natural binders for whitewash. They

concluded that cassava and rice starches improved adhesion and reduced wash-off in

tropical climates, both relevant to the current research's binder formulation.

Oladele et al. (2014) examined eggshell ash as a cement modifier. They found

improved thermal stability and bonding strength, providing insights into the thermal

advantages of other calcium carbonate-rich biowaste, like seashells.

These related studies offer solid empirical and theoretical support for formulating,

testing, and applying seashell-lime whitewash coatings. They reinforce the goals and

importance of the present study.

 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study uses a quantitative experimental research design to measure the solar

reflectance, thermal emittance, and water absorption of whitewash coatings made

from different ratios of powdered seashells and hydrated lime. The experiment applies

six whitewash mixtures to galvanized iron (GI) roofing panels and measures the

results using standardized test methods. This design provides a controlled way to

assess how different ratios affect thermal and moisture-related properties in real

environmental conditions.

Table 1: Number of Samples

Group Whitewash composition No. of Application Measured Measurement

(Seashell-lime) Panels surface Variables Tools

0% Seashell:0% Lime Galvanized Surface temp, Infrared Thermometer,

Iron Panel Internal Temp, Temp Sensor,
Control 3 Reflectivity Portable Solar
Reflectometer, Portable
Emissometers
0% Seashell:100% Lime Galvanized Surface temp, Infrared Thermometer,
(Pure Lime) Iron Panel Internal Temp, Temp Sensor,
A 3 Reflectivity Portable Solar
Reflectometer, Portable
Emissometers
25% Seashell: 75% Lime Galvanized Surface temp, Infrared Thermometer,
Iron Panel Internal Temp, Temp Sensor,
B 3 Reflectivity Portable Solar
Reflectometer, Portable
Emissometers
50% Seashell: 50% Lime Galvanized Surface temp, Infrared Thermometer,
Iron Panel Internal Temp, Temp Sensor,
C 3 Reflectivity Portable Solar
Reflectometer, Portable
Emissometers
75% Seashell: 25% Lime Galvanized Surface temp, Infrared Thermometer,
Iron Panel Internal Temp, Temp Sensor,
D 3 Reflectivity Portable Solar
Reflectometer, Portable
Emissometers
100% Seashell: 0% Lime Galvanized Surface temp, Infrared Thermometer,
Iron Panel Internal Temp, Temp Sensor,
E 3 Reflectivity Portable Solar
Reflectometer, Portable
Emissometers
Locale of the Study

The materials used in the study, including seashells and lime, were sourced from

Iligan City, Lanao del Norte, where marine resources are abundant and accessible.

The experimentation and testing were conducted in Marawi City, Lanao del Sur, a

highland urban setting representative of typical tropical climates. The selected

locations offer a practical environment for sourcing materials and testing whitewash

effectiveness under direct sunlight and natural weather conditions.

Figure 1:

Map of Marawi City, Lanao del Sur

Materials and Equipment

The following instruments were used for data collection and analysis:

Infrared Thermometer – Measures surface temperature.

Digital Temperature Sensors – Monitors internal heat of the roofing setup.

Portable Solar Reflectometer – Measures solar reflectance according to

ASTM C1549.

Portable Emissometer – Measures thermal emittance based on ASTM

C1371.

Weighing Scale and Water Basin – Used in water absorption tests following
ASTM C642.
Procedure of Experimentation
First, powdered seashells and hydrated lime were prepared and mixed in five different

ratios: 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0. An uncoated control group was also

included. The mixtures were combined with starch paste and water to create a

brushable whitewash. These mixtures were applied evenly to galvanized iron (GI)

panels using paintbrushes. After curing for 7 to 10 days, the panels were installed

outdoors and exposed to direct sunlight.

We recorded surface and internal temperatures using infrared thermometers and

temperature sensors during peak sunlight hours over two weeks. We measured solar

reflectance and thermal emittance according to ASTM C1549 and ASTM C1371

standards, respectively. Water absorption tests were performed using ASTM C642 by

measuring the weight gain of coated panels after submerging them in water for 24

hours.

Statistical Treatment/Tools

Descriptive statistics were used to compute the mean and standard deviation of each

performance variable, including surface temperature, solar reflectance, thermal emittance,

and water absorption across the six groups. One-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) was

employed to determine whether significant differences exist among the groups in terms of

their measured properties. Following a significant ANOVA result, Tukey’s Honestly Significant

Difference (HSD) test was conducted as a post-hoc analysis to identify which specific pairs of

groups differed significantly from one another. All data were analyzed using SPSS and

Microsoft Excel, allowing the researchers to validate the hypothesis and assess the statistical

significance of the coating variations.