LESSON 1 Continental Drift Theory .

during the late Paleozoic era, their

climates were all subpolar.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY . c. LYSTROSAURUS: a land-dwelling
❖ propsed by a German meteorologist and reptile, are also found on three of
geophysicist, Alfred Wegener in 1915 in his
these landmasses.
book The Origin of Continents and
Counter to this evidence: Rafting,
Oceans. transoceanic land bridges (isthmian links),
❖ this hypothesis suggested that a single and island stepping stones were the most
supercontinent consisting of all Earth's widely invoked explanations for these
landmasses once existed called Pangaea, migrations. Modern maps of the seafloor
meaning "all lands.", surrounded by the substantiate Wegener’s contention that if land
ocean Panthalassa. bridges of this magnitude once existed, their
❖ This supercontinent began to fragment during remnants would still lie below sea level.
the Mezosoic era into smaller landmasses. 3. ROCK TYPE AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES:
❖ These continental blocks then “drifted” to If the continents were once together, the rocks
their present positions over a span of millions found in a particular region on one continent
of years. should closely match in age and type those
❖ The inspiration for continental drift is believed found in adjacent positions on the once
to have come to Wegener when he observed adjoining continent. Similar evidence can be
the breakup of sea ice during a Danish-led found in mountain belts that terminate at one
expedition to Greenland. coastline, only to reappear on landmasses
Evidences of Continental Drift Theory . across the ocean.
1. CONTINENTAL JIGSAW PUZZLE: they 4. ANCIENT CLIMATES: Paleoclimatic data
suspected that the continents might once have (ancient climate) might also support the idea
been joined when he noticed the remarkable of mobile continents. His assertion was
similarity between the coastlines on opposite bolstered when he learned that evidence fora
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Sir Edward glacial period that dated to the late Paleozoic
Bullard constructed a map of the remarkable had beendiscovered in southern Africa, South
fit among the continents that was obtained America, Australia, and India. Much of the
more precisely than even the researchers land area that contains evidence of this period
expected. of Paleozoic glaciation presently lies within30
Counter to this evidence: They argued that degrees of the equator in subtropical or
shorelines are continually modified by wave tropical climates.
erosion and depositional processes. Even if THE GREAT DEBATE .
continental displacement had taken place, a ❖ The Continental Drift Hypothesis encountered
good fit today would be unlikely. a great deal of hostile criticism.
2. FOSSILS MATCH ACROSS THE SEA: ❖ American geologist R. T. Chamberlain
Although the seed for Wegener’s hypothesis stated, “Wegener’s hypothesis in general is of
came from the earlier evidence, it was when the foot-loose type, in that it takes
he learned that identical fossil organisms had considerable libertywith our globe, and is less
been discovered in rocks from both South bound by restrictions or tied down
America and Africa that his pursuit of byawkward, ugly facts than most of its rival
continental drift became more focused theories. Its appeal seemsto lie in the fact that
through a review of the literature, wherein an it plays a game in which there are few
agreement was formed that some type of land restrictiverules and no sharply drawn code of
connection was needed to explain the conduct.”
existence of similar Mesozoic-age life-forms ❖ OBJECTION 1: Wegener proposed that
on widely separated landmasses. gravitational forces of the Moon And Sun that
a. MESOSAURUS: fossils were found produce Earth’s tides were also capable of
only in nonmarine deposits in eastern gradually moving the continents across the
South America and western Africa. globe.
Mesosaurus was a freshwater reptile ➢ Harold Jeffreys correctly countered
incapable of swimming the 5,000 that tidal forces of the magnitude
kilometers of open ocean that now needed to displace the continents
separate these continents. would bringEarth’s rotation to a halt in
b. GLOSSOPTERIS: remains of a matter of a few years.
Glossopteris and related flora are ❖ OBJECTION 2: Wegener also incorrectly
found in Australia, Africa, South suggested that the larger and sturdier
America, Antarctica, and India, continents broke through thinner oceanic
landmasses that currently have quite crust, much like ice breakers cut through ice.
varied climates. However, when However, no evidence exists to suggest that
Glossopteris inhabited these regions the ocean floor was weak enough to permit
passage of the continents without the
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 continents being appreciably deformed in the ➢ Philippine
process. ➢ Arabian (Continental lithosphere)
➢ Cocos
➢ Scotia
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY . ➢ Juan de Fuca
❖ Once new tools and fundings were PLATE BOUNDARIES .
equipped to oceanographers, they embarked ❖ One of the main tenets of the plate tectonics
on an unprecedented period of theory is that plates move as semi coherent
oceanographic exploration. units relative to all other plates.
❖ Discoveries made: ❖ Because plates are in constant motion relative
➢ The global oceanic ridge system to each other, most major interactions among
that winds through all ofthe major them occur along their boundaries.
oceans. ❖ In fact, plate boundaries were first established
➢ Earthquake studies conducted in the by plotting the locations of earthquakes and
western Pacific demonstrated that volcanoes.
tectonic activity was occurring at ❖ Plates are bounded by three distinct types of
great depths beneath deep-ocean boundaries, which are differentiated by the
trenches. type of movement they exhibit.
➢ The dredging of the seafloor did not ❖ Most active volcanoes are located along the
bring up any oceanic crust that was margins of the ocean basins—notably within
older than 180 million years. the circumPacific belt known as the Ring of
➢ Furthermore, sediment accumulations Fire.
in the deep-ocean basins were found VOLCANOES FOUND ON THE CIRCUMPACIFIC
to be thin, not the thousands of BELT:
meters that were predicted. 1. Composite volcanoes - most prominent and
❖ These led to the plate tectonics theory. most abundant type of volcano, that emit
❖ According to this model, the uppermost volatile-rich magma having an intermediate
mantle and the overlying crust behave as a (andesitic) composition and that occasionally
strong, rigid layer, known as the lithosphere, produce awe-inspiring eruptions.
which is broken into segments commonly 2. Shield volcanoes - basaltic volcanoes that
referred to as plates. emit very fluid lavas. This group includes
❖ The lithosphere, in turn, overlies a weak many active submarine volcanoes that dot the
region in the mantle known as the ocean floor; particularly notable are the
asthenosphere. innumerable small seamounts that occur along
❖ The temperatures and pressures in the upper the axis of the mid-ocean ridge.
asthenosphere (100–200 kilometers in depth) 3. Interior volcanoes - includes volcanic
are such that the rocks there are very near structures that appear to be somewhat
their melting temperatures and, hence, randomly distributed in the interiors of the
respond to stress by flowing. continents.
❖ As a result, Earth’s rigid outer shell is ❖ When compared to volcanism in the ocean
effectively detached from the layers below, basin, volcanism on continents is more
which permits it to move independently. diverse, ranging from eruptions of very fluid
TECTONIC PLATES . basaltic lavas to explosive eruptions of silica
❖ two dozen segments having irregular sizes rich rhyolitic magma.
and shapes that are in constant motion with ❖ Most magma originates in the upper mantle
respect to one another. and that the mantle is essentially solid, not
❖ Also called Lithospheric Plates. molten rock.
❖ There are seven major lithospheric plates that ❖ The basic connection between plate tectonics
are recognized, which account for 94 and volcanism is that plate motions provide
percent of Earth’s surface area: the mechanisms by which mantle rocks
➢ North American melt to generate magma.
➢ South American
➢ Pacific (largest)
➢ African
➢ Eurasian
➢ Australian-Indian
➢ Antarctic
❖ Note also that none of the plates are defined
entirely by the margins of a single continent.
❖ Intermediate-sized plates:
➢ Caribbean
➢ Nazca
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 ➔ Continental rifting occurs where
opposing tectonic forces act to pull the
lithosphere apart.
➔ The initial stage of rifting tends to include
mantle upwelling that is associated with
broad upwarping of the overlying
lithosphere.
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES . ➔ As a result, the lithosphere is stretched,
❖ Account for 40% of total boundaries. causing the brittle crustal rocks to break
❖ Most divergent boundaries are located along into large slabs.
the crests of oceanic ridges and can be
➔ As the tectonic forces continue to pull the
thought of as constructive plate margins crust apart, these crustal fragments sink,
because this is where new ocean floor is generating an elongated depression
generated. called a continental rift
❖ Also called spreading centers. ➔ Tensional forces have stretched and
❖ Two adjacent plates are moving away from thinned the crust, allowing molten rock to
each other, producing long, narrow fractures ascend from the mantle.
in the ocean crust.
➔ If rifting continues, the rift valley will
❖ As a result, hot rock from the mantle below lengthen and deepen, eventually
migrates upward to fill the voids left as the extending out to the margin of the
crust is being ripped apart. landmass.
❖ This molten material gradually cools to Volcanism at Divergent Boundaries .
produce new slivers of seafloor.
1. DECOMPRESSION MELTING: The greatest
Geologic Features Associated with Divergent B. . volume of magma is produced along the
1. Oceanic Ridges oceanic ridge system in association with
➔ elevated areas of the seafloor that are seafloor spreading. Below the ridge axis
characterized by high heat flow and where lithospheric plates are continually
volcanism. being pulled apart, the solid yet mobile
➔ Global Ridge System - the longest mantle responds to the decrease in
topographic feature on Earth’s surface, overburden and rises to fill the rift.
exceeding 70,000 kilometers (43,000
❖ As rock rises, it experiences a decrease in
miles) in length, representing 20 confining pressure and undergoes melting
percent of Earth’s surface, including the without the addition of heat.
following segments:
❖ This is the most common process by which
◆ Mid-Atlantic Ridge mantle rocks melt.
◆ East Pacific Rise 2. PARTIAL MELTING: when this occurs at
◆ Mid-Indian Ridge. spreading centers, it produces basaltic
➔ The mechanism that operates along the magma. Because this newly formed magma is
oceanic ridge system to create new less dense than the mantle rock from which it
seafloor is appropriately called seafloor was derived, it rises and collects in reservoirs
spreading. located just beneath the ridge crest. About 10
➔ The primary reason for the elevated percent of this melt eventually migrates
position of the oceanic ridge is that the upward along fissures to erupt on the ocean
newly created oceanic crust is hot, floor. This activity continuously adds new
making it less dense than cooler rocks basaltic rock to plate margins, temporarily
found away from the ridge axis. welding them together,only to break again as
➔ The thickness of the oceanic lithosphere spreading continues.
is age dependent. The older (cooler) it
is, the greater its thickness. Although most spreading centers are located along
the axis of an oceanic ridge, some are not.
➔ The mechanism driving this is called EAST AFRICAN RIFT
seafloor spreading, as proposed by
Harry Hess. ➔ This is a site where continental lithosphere is
being pulled apart.
2. Rift Valleys ➔ In this setting, magma is generated by
➔ a deep down-faulted structure found decompression melting in the same manner
along the axis of some ridge segments. as along the oceanic ridge system.
➔ This structure is evidence that tensional ➔ Vast outpourings of fluid lavas as well as
forces are actively pulling the ocean crust basaltic shield volcanoes are common in this
apart at the ridge crest. region.
➔ They can also develop within a continent,
in which case the landmass may split into
two or more smaller segments separated
by an ocean basin.

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 than does “dry” rock of the same
composition.
➔ Sediments and oceanic crust contain a
large amount of water, which is carried to
great depths by a subducting plate.
➔ As the plate plunges downward, heat and
pressure drive water from the voids in the
rock.
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES . ➔ At a depth of roughly 100 kilometers, the
❖ Account for 40% of total boundaries. wedge of mantle rock is partially
❖ New lithosphere is constantly being produced melting. Being lessdense than the
at the oceanic ridges; however, our planet is surrounding mantle, this hot mobile
not growing larger—its total surface area material gradually rises toward the
remains constant. surface.
❖ A balance is maintained becaus eolder, FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH OCC:
denser portions of oceanic lithosphere ➔ Mountain systems which are produced in part
descend into the mantle at a rate equal to by volcanic activity associated with the
seafloor production. subduction of oceanic lithosphere, are called
❖ This activity occurs along convergent continental volcanic arcs.
boundaries, where two plates move toward
each other and the leading edge of one is 2. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
bent downward, as it slides beneath the other. ➔ It has many features in common with
❖ Also called subduction zones because they oceanic–continental plate margins.
are sites where the lithosphere is descending ➔ Two oceanic slabs converge, one
(being subducted) into the mantle due to descends beneath the other, initiating
density differences. volcanic activity by the same
● Deep-ocean trenches - are the surface mechanism that operates at all subduction
manifestations produced as the oceanic zones.
lithosphere descends into the mantle. These ➔ Water squeezed from the subducting
large linear depressions are remarkably long slab of oceanic lithosphere triggers
and deep. melting in the hotwedge of mantle rock
❖ Slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into above.
the mantle at angles that vary from a few ➔ In this setting, volcanoes grow up from
degrees to nearly vertical (90 degrees). the ocean floor, rather than upon a
❖ The angle at which the oceanic lithosphere continental platform.
descends depends largely on its density. ➔ When subduction is sustained, it will
❖ The very dense slabs in this region typically eventually build volcanic island arcs
plunge into the mantle at angles approaching large enough to emerge as islands.
90 degrees. ➔ Located adjacent to the island arcs just
❖ This largely explains the fact that most mentioned are the Aleutian trench, the
trenches in the western Pacific are deeper Mariana trench, and the Tonga trench.
than trenches in the eastern Pacific.
❖ Although all convergent zones have the same 3. Continental-Continental Convergence
basic characteristics, they are highly variable ➔ results when one landmass moves toward
features. the margin of another because of
Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries . subduction of the intervening seafloor.
1. Oceanic-Continental Convergence ➔ Whereas oceanic lithosphere tends to be
➔ Whenever the leading edge of a plate dense and sink into the mantle, the
capped with continental crust converges buoyancy of continental material inhibits
with a slab of oceanic lithosphere, the it from being subducted.
buoyant continental block remains ➔ Continental Fragments ensues along this
“floating,” while the denser oceanic slab convergence and this event folds and
sinks into the mantle. deforms the accumulation of sediments
➔ When a descending oceanic slab reaches and sedimentary rocks along the
a depth of about 100 kilometers (60 continental margins as if they had been
miles), melting is triggered within the placed in a gigantic vise.
wedge of hot asthenosphere that lies ➔ The result is the formation of a new
above it. mountain range composed of deformed
➔ Water contained in the descending plates sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that
acts like salt does to melt ice. often contain slivers of oceanic crust.
➔ Wet rocks in a high-pressure environment
melts at substantially lower temperatures

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Volcanism at Convergent Boundaries .
❖ As a slab sinks deeper into the mantle, the Interplate Volcanism .
increase in temperature and pressure drives ❖ Means “within plates”
volatiles (mostly water) from the oceanic crust. ❖ Hawaii’s Kilauea is considered the world’s
❖ These mobile fluids migrate upward into the most active volcano, yet it is situated
wedge-shaped piece of mantle located thousands of kilometers from the nearest plate
between the subducting slab and the boundary inthe middle of the vast Pacific
overriding plate. plate.
❖ Once the sinking slab reaches a depth of ❖ MANTLE PLUMES are masses hotter than
about 100 kilometers, these water-rich fluids normal mantle materials that ascend toward
reduce the melting point of hot mantle rock the surface. These are where most interplate
sufficient to trigger some melting. volcanism occurs. These plumes of solid yet
❖ The partial melting of mantle rock (peridotite) mobile mantle rock rise toward the surface in
generates magma with a basaltic composition. a manner similar to the blobs that form within
❖ After a sufficient quantity of magma has a lava lamp.
accumulated, it slowly migrates upward. ❖ Like the blobs in a lava lamp, a mantle plume
1. VOLCANIC ARCS: also known as volcanic has a bulbous head that draws out a narrow
island arcs, or simply island arcs, are a result stalk beneath it as it rises.
of convergent boundaries in the development ❖ Once the plume head nears the top of the
of a slightly curved chain of volcanoes. These mantle, decompression melting generates
volcanic chains develop roughly parallel to basaltic magma that may eventually trigger
the associated trench—at distances of 200– volcanism at the surface.
300 kilometers (100–200 miles). Volcanic ❖ They are also responsible for the vast
arcs can be constructed on oceanic,or outpourings of basaltic lava that created the
continental, lithosphere. Those that develop large basalt plateaus.
within the ocean and grow large enough for ❖ HOT SPOT - is a localized volcanic region a
their tops to rise above the surface are few hundred kilometers across. This is the
labeled island archipelagos in most atlases. result of mantle plumes.
2. CONTINENTAL VOLCANIC ARC: ❖ The land surface surrounding a hot spot is
convergen plate boundaries may also develop often elevated because it is buoyed up by the
where slabs of oceanic lithosphere are rising plume of warm low density material. .
subducted under continental lithosphere. The ❖ Upon reaching the base of the lithosphere,
mechanisms that generate these mantle- these unusually hot, massive heads begin to
derived magmas are essentially the same as melt.
those operating at island arcs. ❖ Melting progresses rapidly, causing the burst
- The major difference is that of volcanism that emits voluminous
continental crust is much thicker and outpourings of lava to form a huge basalt
is composed of rocks having a higher plateau in a matter of a million or so years.
silica content than oceanic crust. ❖ The comparatively short initial eruptive phase
❖ The magmas generated in the mantle may is followed by tens of millions of years of less
change from a comparatively dry, fluid voluminous activity, as the plume tail slowly
basaltic magma to a viscous andesitic or rises to the surface.
rhyolitic magma having a high concentration ❖ Extending away from most largeflood basalt
of volatiles as it moves up through the provinces is a chain of volcanic structures,
continental crust. similarto the Hawaiian chain, that terminates
over an active hot spot,marking the current
position of the remaining tail of the plume.

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 ❖ Two examples are the earthquake-prone San
Andreas Fault of California and New
Zealand’s Alpine Fault.

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES .

❖ Account for 20% of total boundaries
❖ plates slide horizontally past one another Evidences of Plate Tectonic Theory .
without the production or destruction of 1. OCEAN DRILLING
lithosphere ➔ Some of the most convincing evidence
❖ They are also called conservative plate for seafloor spreading came from the
margins. Deep Sea Drilling Project, which
❖ The nature of transform faults was discovered operated from 1968 until 1983. One of
in 1965 by Canadian geologist John Tuzo the early goals was to gather samples of
Wilson, who proposed that these large faults the ocean floor in order to establish its
connected two spreading centers or less age.
commonly two trenches. ➔ To accomplish this, the Glomar
❖ Most transform faults are found on the ocean Challenger, a drilling ship capable of
floor. working in water thousands of meters
❖ Here they offset segments of the oceanic deep, was built.
ridge system, producing astep-like plate ➔ Hundreds of holes were drilled through
margin. The zigzag shape of the Mid-Atlantic the layers of sediments that blanket the
Ridge roughly reflects the shape of the ocean crust.
original rifting that caused the breakup of the ➔ However, a more immediate concern is
supercontinent ofPangaea. the earthquake activity triggered by
❖ Typically, transform faults are part of movements along this fault system as into
prominent linear breaks in the seafloor known the basaltic rocks below.
as fracture zones, which include both the ➔ When the oldest sediment from each drill
active transform faults as well as their inactive site was plotted against its distance from
extensions into the plate interior. the ridge crest, the plot showed that the
❖ Active transform faults lie only between the sediments increased in age with
two offset ridge segments and are generally increasing distance from the ridge.
defined by weak, shallow earthquakes. ➔ This finding supported the seafloor
➢ Here the seafloor produced at one spreading hypothesis, which predicted
ridge axis moves in the opposite that the youngest oceanic crust would be
direction of seafloor produced at an found at the RIDGE CREST, the site of
opposing ridge segment. seafloor production, and the oldest
➢ Between the ridge segments these oceanic crust would be located adjacent
adjacent slabs of oceanic crust are to the continents.
grinding past each other along a ➔ The Ocean Drilling Program, the
transform fault. successor to the Deep Sea Drilling
❖ Beyond the ridge crests are inactive zones, Project, employed a more technologically
where the fractures are preserved as linear advanced drilling ship, the JOIDES
topographic depressions. Resolution, to continue the work of the
❖ The trend of these fracture zones roughly Glomar Challenger. While the Deep Sea
parallels the direction of plate motion at Drilling Project validated many of the
the time of their formation. major tenets of the theory of plate
❖ Thus, these structures are useful in mapping tectonics, the JOIDES Resolution was able
the direction of plate motion in the to probe deeper into the oceanic crust.
geologic past. ➔ This allowed for the study of earthquake-
❖ In another role, transform faults provide the generating zones at convergent plate
means by which the oceanic crust created at margins and for the direct examination of
ridge crests can be transported to a site of oceanic plateaus and seamounts.
destruction at deep-ocean trenches. ➔ Sediment cores from the OceanDrilling
Program have also extended our

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 knowledge of long- and short-term paleomagnetic poles had changed
climatic changes. through time.
➔ However, Radiometric dates of the ocean ➔ A plot of the location of the magnetic
crust itself are unreliable because of the north pole with respect to Europe
alteration of basalt by seawater. Revealed that during the past 500 million
years, the pole had gradually
wandered from a location near Hawaii
northward to its present location near the
North Pole.
➔ This was strong evidence that either the
magnetic poles had migrated, an idea
known as polar wandering, or that the
lava flows moved—in other words,
Europe had drifted in relation to the
2. HOT SPOTS poles.
➔ Mapping volcanic islands and seamounts ➔ Although the magnetic poles are known
(submarine volcanoes) to move in an erratic path around the
➔ The Pacific Ocean revealed several linear geographic poles, studies of
chains of volcanic structures. paleomagnetism from numerous locations
● Hawaiian Island—Emperor Seamount show that the positions of the magnetic
chain - one of the most studied chains, poles, averaged over thousands of years,
consisting of at least 129 volcanoes that correspond closely to the positions of the
extend from the Hawaiian Islands to Midway geographic poles.
Island and continue northward toward the ➔ Therefore, a more acceptable explanation
Aleutian trench. for the apparent polar wandering paths
➔ Radiometric dating of this structure was provided by Wegener’s hypothesis.
showed that the volcanoes increase in ➔ If the magnetic poles remain
age with increasing distance from the stationary, their apparent movement
“big island” of Hawaii. is produced by continental drift.
➔ Most researchers are in agreement that a ➔ Further evidence for continental drift
cylindrically shaped upwelling of hot came a few years later when a polar-
rock, called a MANTLE PLUME, is wandering path was constructed for
located beneath the island of Hawaii. North America.
➔ As the hot, rocky plume ascends through ➔ When North America and Europe are
the mantle, the confining pressure drops, moved back to their pre-drift positions,
which triggers partial melting. these apparent wandering paths
➔ The surface manifestation of this activity is coincide.
a HOTSPOT, an area of volcanism, high ➔ This is evidence that North America
heat flow, and crustal uplifting that is a and Europe were once joined and
few hundred kilometers across. moved relative to the poles as part of the
➔ As the Pacific plate moved over the hot same continent.
spot, a chain of volcanic structures known 4. GEOMAGNETIC REVERSALS
as a HOT SPOT TRACK was built. ➔ another discovery came when
➔ The age of each volcano indicates how geophysicists learned that over periods of
much time has elapsed since it was hundreds of thousands of years, Earth’s
situated over the mantle plume. magnetic field periodically reverses
➔ Research suggests that at least some polarity.
mantle plumes originate at great depth, ➔ During a magnetic reversal the north
perhaps at the core–mantle boundary. magnetic pole becomes the south
Others, however, may have a much magnetic pole, and vice versa.
shallower origin. Of the 40 or so ➔ Lava solidifying during a period of
hotspots that have been identified reverse polarity will be magnetized with
worldwide, more than a dozen are the polarity opposite that of volcanic
located near spreading centers. rocks being formed today.
➔ When rocks exhibit the same magnetism
3. APPARENT POLAR WANDERING as the present magnetic field, they are
➔ A study of rock magnetism conducted in said to possess normal polarity,
Europe led to an interesting discovery. whereas rocks exhibiting the opposite
➔ The magnetic alignment of iron-rich magnetism are said to have reverse
minerals in lava flows of different ages polarity.
indicated that the position of the ➔ Once the concept of magnetic reversals
was confirmed, researchers set out to

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 establish a time scale for these
occurrences.
➔ The task was to measure the magnetic
polarity of hundreds of lava flows and use
radiometric dating techniques to establish
the age of each flow.
➔ The major divisions of the magnetic time
scale are called chrons.

5. PALEOMAGNETISM
➔ Today, magnetic poles align closely, but 6. SEAFLOOR SPREADING
not exactly, with the geographic poles. ➔ Oceanographers had begun to do
➔ Earth’s magnetic field is similar to that magnetic surveys of the ocean floor in
produced by a simple bar magnet. conjunction with their efforts to construct
➔ Invisible lines of force pass through the detailed maps of seafloor topography.
planet and extend from one magnetic ➔ This was proposed by Harry Hess and
pole to the other. Robert Dietz
➔ A compass needle, itself a small magnet ➔ These magnetic surveys were
free to rotate on an axis, becomes accomplished by towing very sensitive
aligned with the magnetic lines of force instruments, called magnetometers,
and points to the magnetic poles. behind research vessels.
➔ Unlike the pull of gravity, we cannot feel ➔ The goal of these geophysical surveys
Earth’s magnetic field, yet its presence is was to map variations in the strength of
revealed because it deflects a compass Earth’s magnetic field that arise from
needle. differences in the magnetic properties of
➔ In addition, some naturally occurring the underlying crustal rocks.
minerals are magnetic and hence are ➔ The first comprehensive study of this type
influenced by Earth’s magnetic field. was carried out off the Pacific coast of
➔ One of the most common is the iron-rich North America and had an unexpected
mineral magnetite, which is abundant in outcome.
lava flows of basaltic composition. ➔ Researchers discovered alternating
➔ Basaltic lavas erupt at the surface at stripes of high-and low intensity
temperatures greater than 1000° C, magnetism. This relatively simple pattern
exceeding a threshold temperature for of magnetic variation defied explanation
magnetism known as the Curie point until 1963, when Fred Vine and D. H.
(about 585°C). Matthews demonstrated that the high-
➔ Consequently, the magnetite grains in and low-intensity stripes supported the
molten lava are nonmagnetic. concept of seafloor spreading.
➔ However, as the lava cools these iron- ➔ Vine and Matthews suggested that the
rich grains become magnetized and stripes of high-intensity magnetism are
align themselves in the direction of the regions where the paleomagnetism of the
existing magnetic lines of force. ocean crust exhibits normal polarity.
➔ Once the minerals solidify, the ➔ Consequently, these rocks enhance
magnetism they possess will usually (reinforce) Earth’s magnetic field.
remain “frozen” in this position. ➔ Conversely, the low intensity stripes are
➔ Thus, they act like a compass needle regions where the ocean crust is
because they “point”toward the position polarized in the reverse direction and
of the magnetic poles at the time of their therefore weaken the existing magnetic
formation. field.
➔ Rocks that formed thousands or millions ➔ Evidences of Seafloor Spreading Theory
of years ago and contain a “record” of ◆ Rocks are younger at the Mid-
the direction of the magnetic poles at the Ocean Ridge
timeof their formation are said to possess ◆ Rocks far from the mid-ocean
fossil magnetism, paleomagnetism. ridge are older

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 ◆ Sediments are thinner at the ➢ Convective flow in the rocky
ridge mantle—in which warm, buoyant rock
◆ Rocks at the ocean floor are rises and cooler, denser material sinks
younger than at the continents —is the underlying driving force for
plate movement
➢ Mantle convection and plate
tectonics are part of the same
system. Subducting oceanic plates
drive the cold downward moving
portion of convective flow while
shallow upwelling of hot rock along
the oceanic ridge and buoyant mantle
plumes are the upward-flowing arms
of the convective mechanism.
➢ Convective flow in the mantle is
the primary mechanism for
transporting heat away from Earth’s
interior to the surface,where it is
eventually radiated into space.
PLATE-MANTLE CONVECTION . ❖ What is not known with any high degree of
❖ From geophysical evidence, we have certainty is the exact structure of this
learned that although the mantle consists convective flow.
almost entirely of solid rock, it is hot and Plate-Mantle Convection Models .
weak enough to exhibit fluid like convective 1. Layering at 660 Kilometers
flow. ➔ Some researchers argue that the mantle
❖ The shape of the mantle does not resemble resembles a “giant layer cake” divided at
that of a cooking pot. Rather, it is a a depth of 660 kilometers.
spherically shaped zone with a much larger ➔ This layered model has two zones of
upper boundary (Earth’s surface) than lower convection—a thin,dynamic layer in the
boundary (core–mantle boundary). upper mantle and a thick, sluggish one
❖ Furthermore, mantle convection is driven by a located below.
combination of three thermal processes: ➔ This model successfully explains why
➢ heating at the bottom by heat loss basaltic lavas that erupt along the oceanic
from Earth’s core; ridges have a different chemical makeup
➢ heating from within by the decay of than those that erupt in Hawaii as a result
radioactive isotopes; and of hotspot activity.
➢ cooling from the top that creates thick, ➔ The mid-ocean ridge basalts come from
cold lithospheric slabs thatsink into the the upper convective layer, which is well
mantle. mixed, whereas the mantle plume that
❖ When seafloor spreading was first feeds the Hawaiian volcanoes taps a
introduced, geologist proposed that the main deeper, more primitive magma source
driving force for plate motion is upwelling that resides in the lower convectivelayer.
that came from deep in the mantle. ➔ However, data gathered from the study of
❖ Upon reaching the base of the lithosphere, earthquake waves have shown that at least
this flow was thought to spread laterally and some subducting oceanic slabs penetrate
drag the plates along. the 660-kilometer boundary and descend
❖ Thus, plates were viewed as being carried deep into the mantle.
passively by convective flow in the mantle. ➔ The subducting lithosphere should serve
❖ Based on physical evidence, upwelling to mix the upper and lower layers
beneath oceanic ridges is quite shallow and together, thereby destroying the layered
not related to deep circulation in the lower structure proposed in this model.
mantle. 2. Whole-Mantle Convection
❖ It is the horizontal movement of lithospheric ➔ Other researchers favor some type of
plates away from the ridge that causes mantle whole-mantle convection in which cold
upwelling, not the other way around. oceanic lithosphere sinks to great
❖ Thus, modern models have plates being an depths and stirs the entire mantle.
integral part of mantle convection and ➔ One whole-mantle model suggests that
perhaps even its most active the burial ground for subducting slabs is
component.Although convection in the mantle the core–mantle boundary.
is still poorly understood, researchers ➔ Over time, this material melts and
generally agree on the following: buoyantly rises toward the surface as a

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 mantle plume, thereby transporting hot ➔ Beneath plates, convective flow in the
material toward the surface. mantle exerts a force, perhaps best
➔ Recent work has predicted that whole- described as “mantle drag”.
mantle convection would cause the entire ➔ When flow in the asthenosphere is
mantle to completely mix in a matter of a moving at a velocity that exceeds that of
few hundred million years. This, in turn, the plate, mantle drag enhances plate
would eliminate chemically distinct motion.
magma sources—those that are observed ➔ However, if the asthenosphere is moving
in hot-spot volcanism and those more slowly than the plate, or in the
associated with volcanic activity along opposite direction, this force tends to
oceanic ridges. resist plate motion.
➔ Thus, the whole-mantle model also has ➔ Another type of resistance to plate motion
shortcomings. occurs along subduction zones.
➔ Although there is still much to be learned ➔ Here friction between the overriding
about the mechanisms that cause Earth’s plate and the descending slab generates
tectonic plates to migrate across the significant earthquake activity.
globe, one thing is clear.
➔ The unequal distribution of heat END OF LESSON 1.
inEarth’s interior generates some type of If you want to test your knowledge regarding the lesson, you may
thermal convection that ultimately drives take this quiz: [ https://bit.ly/ESci10_Mod1 ]
plate–mantle motion.

Forces Driving Plate Motion .

1. SLAB-PULL
➔ There is general agreement that the
subduction of cold, dense slabs of
oceanic lithosphere is a major driving
force of plate motion.
➔ As these slabs sink into the
asthenosphere, they “pull” the trailing
plate along.
➔ This phenomenon, called slab pull,
occurs because cold slabs of the oceanic
lithosphere are more dense than the
underlying asthenosphere and hence
“sink like a rock.”
➔ Another important driving force is ridge
push.
➔ This gravity-driven mechanism results
from the elevated position of the oceanic
ridge, which causes slabs of lithosphere
to “slide” down the flanks of the ridge.

2. RIDGE-PUSH
➔ It appears to contribute far less to plate
motions than slab pull.
➔ The primary evidence for this comes from
comparing rates of seafloor spreading
along ridge segments having different
elevations.
➔ In addition, fast-moving plates are being
subducted along a larger percentage of
their margins than slow-moving plates.
➔ This fact supports the notion that slab pull
is a more significant driving force than
ridge push.
➔ Although slab pull and ridge push appear
to be the dominant forces acting on
plates, they are not the only forces that
influence plate motion.

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 LESSON 2 Earthquakes and Seismic Waves
. Anatomy of Earthquakes .
EARTHQUAKES . 1. Focus - also known as Hypocenter, this is the
❖ are natural geologic phenomenon caused by point within Earth where the earthquake starts.
the sudden and rapid movement of a large It is found between 5 to 700 kilometers
volume of rock underneath the Earth.
❖ this is the result of a sudden release of energy 2. Epicenter - is the location on the surface that
in the earth’s crust that creates seismic waves. is directly above the focus.
❖ Earthquakes take place along faults both new 3. Faults - are fractures in Earth where
and old that occur in places where movement has occurred.
differential stresses have ruptured Earth’s
crust. IMPORTANT NOTE(S)!!! .
FAULTS . ❖ Thousands of earthquakes occur worldwide
❖ They are locked due to confining pressure everyday. Most are so small that only sensitive
exerted by overlying crust. instruments can detect these. Only 15 strong
❖ When there are abrupt movements due to quakes are felt.
slippage, causing Earthquakes.
❖ Some faults are large and capable of SEISMIC WAVES .
generating major earthquakes. ❖ Form of elastic energy that causes vibrations
➢ One example is the San Andreas Fault, in the material that transmits them.
which is the transform fault boundary that ❖ Once there’s a disturbance in the surface, it is
separates two great sections of Earth's reverberated and amplified throughout the
Lithosphere: the North American plate
area.
and the Pacific plate.
❖ Other Faults are small and capable of Types of Seismic Waves .
producing only minor earthquakes. 1. Body Waves
❖ Most of the displacement that occurs along ➔ Travel through the interior of the Earth.
faults can be satisfactorily explained by the ➔ They arrive before the surface waves and
plate tectonics theory, which states that have higher frequency.
large slabs of Earth’s lithosphere are in ➔ They spread outward from the focus in all
continual slow motion. directions.
❖ These mobile plates interact with neighboring ➔ They can be deflected
plates, straining and deforming the rocks at Types of Body Waves:
their margins. ● P-Waves (Primary) - they are the fastest
waves. They travel through solids, liquids,
❖ Faults associated with plate boundaries are or gases. They are compressional waves
the source of most large earthquakes.
(pushing/pulling motion). They have the
❖ Large faults are not perfectly straight or ability to temporarily change in volume.
continuous; instead, they consist of numerous
branches and smaller fractures that display
kinksand offsets. ● S-Waves (Shear / Secondary) - slower
than P-waves. They travel through solids
● FAULT CREEP - a few sections of faults only. They move material perpendicular to
where slow, gradual displacement occurs
wave movement (up and down). They can
without the buildup of significant strain.
only change the shape of materials.
❖ These sections produce only minor seismic
shaking. ●
2. Surface Waves
❖ Other segments slip at regular intervals,
producing small-to-moderate earthquakes. ➔ They spread outward from the epicenter
to the Earth’s surface.
❖ Still other segments remain locked and store
energy for a few hundred years before ➔ They travel just below or along the
ground’s surface.
rupturing in great earthquakes.
➔ These waves can move rock particles in a
❖ Earthquakes that occur along locked segments rolling motion that very few structures can
of the San Andreas Fault tend to be repetitive.
withstand.
❖ As soon asone is over, the continuous motion
of the plates begins buildingstrain anew. ➔ They move slower than body waves.
Decades or centuries later, the fault fails ➔ They are the most destructive waves for
structures on earth.
again.
Types of Body Waves:
Main Natural Causes of Earthquakes .
● L-Waves (Love) - are surface seismic
❖ Volcanic eruptions waves that cause horizontal shifting of
❖ Slippage along faults the Earth during an earthquake. It
❖ Movement of tectonic plates causes the ground to move side-to-
Albeit it may also be caused by artificial activities,
e.g. explosion
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 side. Discovered by Augustus Edward keeps it relatively stationary while Earth and
Hough Love the support move.
❖ May be VERTICAL (has spring) or
● R-Waves (Rayleigh) - a.k.a. HORIZONTAL (has wire)
“Ground rolling”, is a type of
surface acoustic wave that travels SEISMOSCOPE .
along the surface of solids. This is the ❖ The first Earthquake detector invented by
slowest wave to travel. It causes the Zhang Heng during the Han Dynasty
ground to move in a rolling manner. SEISMOGRAM .
They travel as ripples. Discovered by ❖ Records obtained from a seismograph
John William Strut, a.k.a. Lord ❖ They provide useful information about the
Rayleigh. nature of seismic waves.
❖ Seismograms reveal that two main groups of
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY . seismic waves are generated by the slippage
❖ proposed by Harry Fielding Reid of a rock mass.
❖ It explains how energy is stored in rocks and TRIANGULATION .
released in earthquakes ➢ A method used to find the precise location
❖ This theory explains why earthquakes result in can be determined when the distance is
ground movement and why they most often known from three or more seismic stations.
occur in fault lines ➢ On a globe, a circle is drawn around each
Proposition of the Elastic Rebound Hypothesis. seismic station.
1. Original position: Rocks are deformed and ➢ The radius of these circles is equal to the
their original position is flattened distance from the seismic station to the
2. Buildup of Strain: Energy is transferred epicenter.
through rocks causing these to move. Earth’s ➢ The point where the three circles intersect is
crust is made of plates of rock that float on the the epicenter of the quake.
mantle that slides each other. The plates grind ➢ From these seismograms, travel-time graphs
in the edges or the place where they meet. were constructed. We can determine the
3. Slippage: There is friction so the rocks distance separating the recording station from
deform straining until the rocks can handle. the earthquake in two steps:
The deformed rock is released in the form of a. Determine the time interval
heat and seismic waves. between the arrival of the first P wave
4. Release of Strain: Strained rocks suddenly and the arrival of the first S wave.
resume their undeformed state. Earth’s crust b. Using the travel-time graph, find
stores elastic stress that builds up until its the P–S interval on the vertical axis
sudden release during an earthquake. and use that information to determine
● Foreshocks - small earthquakes the distance to the epicenter on the
preceding a major earthquake by days or horizontal axis.
several years. INTENSITY .
● Aftershocks - Smaller tremors following ❖ A measure of the degree of earthquake
the strong earthquakes. Sometimes, the shaking at a given locale based on observed
energy or strain is not fully released; effects.
therefore, there are still smaller Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale .
earthquakes. ❖ named after Giuseppe Mercalli who initially
developed it in 1902.
SEISMOLOGY . ❖ This intensity scale is divided into 12 levels
❖ The study of of severity based on observed effects.
Earthquake waves ❖ Lower numbers on the Mercalli scale (I–
❖ First attempted by V) refer to what people in various locations
Chinese people felt during the quake
(2000 years ago) ❖ Higher numbers (VI–XII) are based on
to identify the observable damage to buildings and other
origin of waves structures.
SEISMOGRAPH . ❖ Despite their usefulness in providing a tool to
❖ An instrument that records earthquake waves compare earthquake severity, intensity scales
❖ Synonymous to Seismometer (the internal part have significant drawbacks:
of seismograph) ■ These scales are based on effects
❖ It has a weight freely suspended from a (largely destruction) that depend not
support that is securely attracted to the only on the severity of ground shaking
ground. When vibrations from an earthquake but also on factors such as building
reach the instrument, the inertia of the weight design and the nature of surface
materials.

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 MAGNITUDE .
❖ A quantitative measurement that relies on data EARTHQUAKE BELTS .
gleaned from seismic records and other ❖ Relatively narrow zones where about 95
techniques to estimate the amount of energy percent of the energy released by
released at an earthquake’s source. earthquakes originate.
Richter Magnitude Scale . 2 Major Earthquake Belts .
❖ In 1935, Charles Richter of the California 1. CIRCUMPACIFIC BELT
Institute of Technology developed the first ➔ the zone of greatest seismic activity,
magnitude scale using seismic records. called circum-Pacific Belt,
❖ Richter scale is based on the amplitude of the ➔ Encompasses the coastal regions of:
largest seismic wave (P, S, or surface wave) ◆ Chile
recorded on a seismogram. ◆ Central America
❖ Because seismic waves weaken as the ◆ Indonesia
distance between the focus and the ◆ Japan
seismograph increases, Richter developed a ◆ Alaska
method that accounts for the decrease in ◆ including the Aleutian Islands.
wave amplitude with increasing distance. ➔ Most earthquakes in the circum-Pacific
❖ Recordings from different places might result Belt occur along convergent plate
to wide variation in Magnitude due to boundaries.
differences in rock composition. ● Megathrust Fault - a huge fault formed by
❖ To accommodate this wide variation, Richter the zone of contact between the subducting
used a logarithmic scale to express and overlying plates, along which Earth’s
magnitude, in which a ten fold increase in largest earthquakes are generated.
wave amplitude corresponds to an increase ➔ Because subduction zone earthquakes
of 1 on the magnitude scale. usually happen beneath the ocean, they
❖ In addition, each unit of Richter magnitude may also generate destructive waves
equates to roughly a 32-fold energy called tsunami.
increase. 2. ALPINE-HIMALAYAN BELT
❖ Conversely, earthquakes with a ➔ another major concentration of strong
Richtermagnitude of less than 2.0 are seismic activity that runs through the
generally not felt by humans. mountainous regions that flank the
❖ Richter scale is said to be saturated for major Mediterranean Sea and extends past the
earthquakes because it cannot distinguish Himalayan Mountains).
among them. ➔ Tectonic activity in this region is mainly
Moment Magnitude . attributed to the collision of the African
❖ It determines the strain energy released along plate with Eurasia and the collision of
the entire fault surface. the Indian plate with southeast Asia.
❖ Because moment magnitude estimates the ➔ These plate interactions created many
total energy released, it is better for faults that remain active.
measuring or describing very large ➔ In addition, numerous faults located away
earthquakes. from these plate boundaries have been
❖ In light of this, seismologists have recalculated reactivated as India continues its
the magnitudes of older, strong earthquakes northward advance into Asia.
using the moment magnitude scale. ➔ This zone coincides with the oceanic
❖ Moment magnitude can be calculated from ridge system, which is an area of
geologic fieldwork by measuring the average frequent but low-intensity seismic
amount of slip on the fault, the area of the activity.
fault surface that slipped, and the strength of ➔ As tensional forces pull the plates apart
the faulted rock. during seafloor spreading, displacement
❖ This method is most effective for determining along normal faults generates most of the
the magnitude of large earthquakes generated earthquakes.
along large faults in which the ruptures reach ➔ The remaining seismic activity in this
the surface. zone is associated with slippage along
❖ Moment magnitude canalso be calculated transform faults located between ridge
using data from seismograms. segments.
Factors Affecting Destruction from S. Vibrations.
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 ❖ Intensity ❖ Aims at giving probability of certain
❖ Duration of the shaking magnitude earthquake occurring on a time
❖ Nature of the material upon which the scale of 30 - 100 years
structure rests ❖ It gives statistical estimates of the expected
❖ Nature of building materials and the intensity of ground motion over a given area
construction practices of the region. in a specified time frame
❖ Based on evidences that many faults break in
a cyclical manner, producing quakes at
AMPLIFICATION OF SEISMIC WAVES . similar intervals.
❖ Although the region near the epicenter will ❖ Seismic Gaps and Paleoseismology are
experience about the same intensity of reliable indicators.
ground shaking, destruction may vary EARTH’S INTERIOR
considerably within this area. ● Sorry tinatamad na ako, madali lang naman kc
❖ Such differences are usually attributable to the i2,,,,
nature of the ground on which the structures
are built. END OF LESSON 2.
Damages done by Earthquakes.
❖ LIQUEFACTION: In areas where
unconsolidated materials are saturated with water,
earthquake vibrations can turn stable soil into a
mobile fluid, a phenomenon known as
liquefaction. As a result, the ground is not capable
of supporting buildings and underground storage
tanks, and sewer lines may literally float toward the
surface.
❖ FIRE: Although many of the unreinforced brick
buildings may extensively be damaged by
vibrations, the greatest destruction will be caused
by fires, which started when gas and electrical
lines were severed.
❖ LANDSLIDES AND GROUND
SUBSIDENCE: The greatest damage to
structures is often caused by landslides and ground
subsidence triggered by earthquake vibrations.
❖ TSUNAMI: Large undersea earthquakes
occasionally set in motion massive waves that
scientists call seismic sea waves. Most tsunami are
caused by the vertical displacement of a slab of
seafloor along a fault on the ocean floor, or less
often by a large submarine landslide triggered by
an earthquake.
SHORT-RANGE PREDICTIONS .
❖ Aims to provide a warning of the location and
magnitude of a large earthquake within a
narrow time frame
❖ Substantial efforts have been attended,
concentrating on precursors that may proside
warnings.
❖ Seismologists monitor:
1. Changes in ground elevation
2. Variations in strain levels near
active faults
3. Changes in ground water levels
4. Frequency of foreshocks
❖ Other bases:
1. Animals Swarming / Fleeing
2. Birds flying at low heights
3. Erratic Animal Behaviors
4. Elevated concentrations of Radon
Gas in Soil
❖ May lead to false-alarms
❖ Still no reliable methods exist.
LONG-RANGE PREDICTIONS .

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 LESSON 3 Crustal Deformation and Orogenesis the top of the deck is moved relative to the
bottom. It causes strike-slip faults.
.
Shifting lithospheric plates continually change the
face of our planet by moving continents across the
globe. The results of this tectonic activity are perhaps
most strikingly apparent in Earth’s major mountain
belts.
DEFORMATION .
➢ a general term that refers to all changes in the
original shape, size (volume), or orientation
of a rock body.
➢ Although each rock type deforms somewhat Factors Affecting Rock Strength .
differently, the general characteristics of rock 1. TEMPERATURE: Rocks respond similarly to
deformation were determined from heat. Where temperatures are high (deep in
experiments conducted by earlier research. Earth’s crust), rocks tend to deform ductilely
➢ Geologists learned that when stress is and flow. Likewise, where temperatures are
gradually applied, rocks first respond by low (at or near the surface),rocks tend to
deforming elastically. behave like brittle solids and fracture.
Types of Deformation . 2. CONFINING PRESSURE: pressure, like
1. ELASTIC DEFORMATION: Changes that temperature, increases with depth as the
result from elastic deformation are thickness of the overlying rock increases.
recoverable; that is, like a rubber band, the Buried rocks are subjected to confining
rock will return to nearly its original size and pressure, which is much like water pressure,
shape when the stress is removed. During where the forces are applied equally in all
elastic deformation the chemical bonds of the directions. Confining pressure “squeezes” the
minerals within a rock are stretched but don't materials in Earth’s crust. Therefore, rocks that
break. Once the elastic limit (strength) of a are deeply buried are “held together” by the
rock is surpassed, it either flows or fractures. immense pressure and tend to flow, rather
2. BRITTLE DEFORMATION: Brittle than fracture.
deformation occurs when stress causes the 3. ROCK TYPE: In addition to the physical
chemical bonds that hold a material together environment, the mineral composition and
to break. Rocks that break into smaller pieces texture of rock greatly influence how it will
exhibit brittle deformation. In nature, brittle deform. Weak rocks are most likely to behave
deformation occurs when stresses exceed the in a ductile manner (flow or fold) when
strength of a rock, causing it to break or subjected to differential stress. Igneous and
fracture. some metamorphic rocks tend to be strong
3. DUCTILE DEFORMATION: is a type of solid and brittle. In a near-surface environment,
state flow that produces a change in the strong, brittle rocks will fail by fracturing
shape of an object without fracturing. when subjected to stresses that exceed their
Ordinary objects that display ductile behavior strength. At increasing depths, however, the
include modeling clay, beeswax, taffy, and strength of all rock types decreases
some metals. In rocks, ductile deformation is significantly.
the result of some chemical bonds breaking 4. TIME: One key factor that researchers are
while others are forming, allowing minerals to unable to duplicate in the laboratory is how
change shape. rocks respond to small stresses applied
gradually over long spans of geologic time.
However, insights into the effects of time on
STRESS .
deformation are provided in everyday
➢ describes the forces that deform rocks.
settings. In general, when tectonic forces are
➢ When rocks are subjected to stresses greater
than their strength, they begin to deform, applied slowly over long time spans, rocks
usually by flowing or fracturing. tend to display ductile behavior and deform
by flowing and folding. These same rocks
Types of Stress .
may fracture if the stress increases suddenly.
1. COMPRESSIONAL STRESS: stress that
squeezes and shortens a rock mass. It causes As a consequence, folding and faulting may
thrust / reverse faults. occur simultaneously in the same rock body.
2. TENSIONAL STRESS: stress that pulls apart
or elongates a rock body. It forms normal
faults.
3. SHEAR STRESS: stress that cause a rock to
shear, which is similar to the slippage that
occurs between individual playing cards when

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 Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation . structures having a similar shape are termed
1. MOUNTAIN BUILDING: Because folds are basins.
common features of deformed sedimentary Basins are thought to be the result of large
rocks, we know rocks can bend without accumulations of sediment, whose weight
breaking. Ductile deformation is often caused the crust to subside.
accomplished by gradual slippage along A few structural basins may have been the
planes of weakness within the atomic structure result of giant asteroid impacts. Because large
of mineral grains. This microscopic form of basins contain sedimentary beds sloping at
gradual solid-state flow involves slippage low angles, they are usually identified by the
facilitated by chemical bonds breaking in one age of the rocks composing them. The
location as new ones form at another site. youngest rocks are found near the center, and
Rocks that display evidence of ductile flow the oldest rocks are at the flanks.
usually were deformed at great depth and This is just the opposite order of a domed
may exhibit contorted folds that give the structure, such as the Black Hills, where the
impression that the strength of the rock was oldest rocks form the core.
akin to soft putty. 4. MONOCLINES: in the real world folds can
2. FOLDS: is a series of wavelike undulations by be intimately coupled with faults. Examples of
which flat-lying sedimentary and volcanic this close association are broad, regional
rocks are often bent into during mountain features called monoclines. Folds appear to
building. Some folds are broad flexures in be the result of the reactivation of ancient,
which strata hundreds of meters thick have steep dipping faults located in basement
been slightly warped. Others are very tight rocks beneath the plateau. As large blocks of
microscopic structures found in metamorphic basement rock were displaced upward, the
rocks. Size differences not withstanding, most comparatively ductile sedimentary strata
folds are the result of compressional above responded by folding. Differential
stresses. erosion has left the more resistant beds
● Anticlines - usually arise by upfolding, or outcropping as prominent angular ridges
arching, of sedimentary layers and are called hogbacks. Because hogbacks can form
sometimes spectacularly displayed along whenever resistant strata are steeply inclined,
highways that have been cut through they are associated with most types of folds.
deformed strata.
● Synclines - are downfolds, or troughs,
that are almost often found in association
with anticlines. The limb of an anticline is
also a limb of the adjacent syncline.
● SYMMETRICAL FOLDS: depending on
their orientation, these basic folds are
described as symmetrical when the limbs
are mirror images of each other.
● ASYMMETRICAL FOLDS: said to be
overturned if one or both limbs are tilted
beyond the vertical. An overturned fold
can also “lies on its side” so a plane
extending through the axis of the fold is
horizontal.
These recumbent folds are common in highly
deformed mountainous regions. Folds do not
continue forever; rather, their ends die out,
much like the wrinkles in cloth. Some folds
plunge because the axis of the fold penetrates
the ground.
It is important to realize that ridges are not
necessarily associated with anticlines, nor are
valleys related to synclines. Rather, ridges and
valleys result because of differential
weathering and erosion.
3. DOMES AND BASINS: Broad upwarps in
basement rock may deform the overlying
cover of sedimentary strata and generate
large folds. When this upwarping produces a
circular or slightly elongated structure, the
feature is called a dome. Downwarped

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 Structures Formed by Brittle Deformation . determining the nature of the tectonic forces
1. FAULTS: In the upper crust, rocks tend to at work within Earth.
exhibit brittle behavior by fracturing, or by Normalfaults are associated with tensional
faulting. Faults are fractures in the crust forces that pull the crust apart. This “pulling
along which appreciable displacement has apart” can be accomplished either by
taken place. Occasionally, small faults can be uplifting that causes the surface to stretch and
recognized inroad cuts where sedimentary break or by opposing horizontal forces.
beds have been offset a few meters. Faults of ● Reverse Faults - are dip-slip faults in which
this scale usually occur as single discrete the hanging wall block moves up relative to
breaks. By contrast, large faults, have the footwall block. Thrust faults are reverse
displacements of hundreds of kilometers and faults having dips less than 45 degrees, so
consist of many interconnecting fault surfaces. the overlying block moves nearly horizontally
These structures, best described as fault over the underlying block. Whereas normal
zones, can be several kilometers wide and faults occur in tensional environments, reverse
are often easier to identify from high-altitude faults result from strong compressional
photographs than at ground level. stresses. Because the hanging wall block
Types of Faults: moves up and over the footwall block, reverse
● Dip-Slip Faults - faults in which movement is and thrust faults accommodate horizontal
primarily parallel to the dip (or inclination) shortening of the crust. Most high-angle
of the fault surface. It has become common reverse faults are small and accommodate
practice to call the rock surface that is local displacements in regions dominated by
immediately above the fault the hanging wall other types of faulting.
block and to call the rock surface below, the ● Thrust Faults - they exist at all scales with
footwall block. Dip-slip faults are classified some large thrust faults having displacements
as normal faults when the hanging wall block on the order of tens to hundreds of
moves down relative to the footwall block. kilometers. Thrust faulting is most produced
Because of the downward motion of the along convergent plate boundaries.
hanging wall block, normal faults Compressional forces associated with
accommodate lengthening, or extension, of colliding plates generally create folds as well
the crust. as thrust faults that thicken and shorten the
● Normal faults - faults in which the hanging crust to produce mountainous topography.
wall moves down relative to the footwall ● Strike-Slip Faults - a fault in which the
block. Most large, normal faults have dominant displacement is horizontal and
relatively steep dips that tend to flatten out parallel to the trend or strike of the fault
with depth. surface. The earliest scientific records of
○ Fault scarps - long, low cliffs strike-slip faulting were made following
produced by vertical displacements surface ruptures that produced large
along dip-slip faults. earthquakes. Some strike-slip faults cut
○ Fault-block mountains - structures through the lithosphere and accommodate
associated with normal faults in US. motion between two large tectonic plates. This
Here, the crust has beenelongated special kind of strike-slip fault is called a
and broken to create more than 200 transform fault. Numerous transform faults
relatively small mountain ranges. cut the oceanic lithosphere and link spreading
Movements along these faults produced oceanic ridges. Others accommodate
alternating horsts and grabens. displacement between continental plates that
○ Horsts - uplifted fault blocks that move horizontally with respect to each other.
generate elevated topography. They may either be DEXTRAL (right-lateral)
○ Grabens - down-dropped blocks that or SINISTRAL (left-lateral).
generate basins.
○ Half-grabens - titled fault blocks,
which also contribute to the
alternating topographic highs and
lows in the Basin and Range Province.
The horsts and higher ends of the tilted fault
blocks are the source of sediments that have
accumulated in the basins created by the
grabens and lower ends of the tilted blocks.
These faults form a major boundary between
the rocks below, which exhibit ductile
deformation, and the rocks above, which
exhibit brittle deformation. Fault motion
provides geologists with a method of

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 ➔ According to this idea, Earth contracted and
shrank as it lost heat, which caused the crust
2. JOINTS: Unlike faults, joints are fractures to deform.
along which no appreciable displacement ➔ However, neither this nor any other early
has occurred. Although some joints have a hypothesis withstood scientific scrutiny.
random orientation, most occur in roughly Orogenesis at Subduction Zones .
parallel groups. ❖ With the development of the theory of plate
Types of Joints: tectonics, a model for orogenesis with
● Columnar Joints - form when igneous rocks excellent explanatory power has emerged.
cool and develop shrinkage fractures that ❖ According to this model, most mountain
produce elongated, pillarlike columns. building occurs at convergent plate
● Sheet Joints - produces a pattern of gently boundaries.
curved joints that develop more or less ❖ Here, the subduction of oceanic lithosphere
parallel to the surface of large exposed triggers partial melting of mantle rock,
igneous bodies such as batholiths. Here the providing a source of magma that intrudes the
jointing results from the gradual expansion crustal rocks that form the margin of the
that occurs when erosion removes the overlying plate.
overlying load. ❖ In addition, colliding plates provide the
tectonic forces that fold, fault, and
Most joints are produced when rocks in the metamorphose the thick accumulations of
outermost crust are deformed as tensional sediments that have been deposited along the
stresses cause the rock to fail by brittle flanks of landmasses.
fracture. Extensive joint patterns often develop ❖ Together, these processes thicken and shorten
in response to relatively subtle and often the continental crust, thereby elevating rocks
barely perceptible regional upwarping and that may have formed near the ocean floor to
downwarping of the crust. In many cases, the lofty heights.
cause for jointing at a particular locale is not ❖ The subduction of the oceanic lithosphere
readily apparent. Many rocks are broken by generates Earth’s strongest earthquakes and
two or even three sets of intersecting joints most explosive volcanic eruptions, as well as
that slice the rock into numerous regularly playing a pivotal role in generating many of
shaped blocks. These joint sets often exert a Earth’s mountain belts.
strong influenceon other geologic processes. ❖ The subduction of the oceanic lithosphere
Moreover, a system of joints can influence the gives rise to two different types of tectonic
direction stream courses follow. structures.
➢ VOLCANIC ARC: oceanic
OROGENESIS . lithosphere subducts beneath an
➢ term for the processes that collectively oceanic plate, and related tectonic
produce a mountain belt features develop. Subduction beneath
➢ Most of the major young mountain belts have a continental block, on the other
come into existence within the last 100 million hand, results in the formation of a
years. volcanic arc along the margin of a
➢ In addition to these young mountain belts, continent. Plate boundaries that
there are several chains of Paleozoic-age generate continental volcanic arcs are
mountains found on Earth. referred to as Andean-type plate
➢ Although these older structures are deeply margins.
eroded and topographically less prominent, ➢ VOLCANIC ISLAND ARC: Island
they exhibit the same structural features found arcs result from the steady subduction
in younger mountains. of oceanic lithosphere. Periodic
➢ These compressional mountains contain large volcanic activity, the emplacement of
quantities of preexisting sedimentary and igneous plutons at depth, and the
crystalline rocks that have been faulted and accumulation of sediment that is
contorted into a series of folds. scraped from the subducting plate
FORMATION OF MOUNTAIN BELTS gradually increase the volume of
➔ As early as the ancient Greeks, this question crustal material capping the upper
has intrigued some of the greatest plate. The continued growth of a
philosophers and scientists. volcanic island arc can result in the
➔ One early proposal suggested that mountains formation of mountainous topography
are simply wrinkles in Earth’s crust, produced consisting of belts of igneous and
as the planet cooled from its original metamorphic rocks. This activity,
semimolten state. however, is viewed as just one phase
in the development of a major
mountain belt.

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 ❖ The seaward segment is the accretionary
wedge. It consists of folded and faulted
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
❖ Subsequent uplifting and erosion have
removed most of the evidence of past
volcanic activity and exposed a core of
Mountain Building along Andean-Type Margins crystalline, igneous, and associated
. metamorphic rocks.
❖ The first stage in the development of an ❖ In the trench region, sediments scraped from
Andean-type mountain belt occurs along a the subducting plate, plus those provided by
passive continental margin prior to the the eroding continental volcanic arc, were
formation of the subduction zone. intensely folded and faulted into an
❖ At some point, the forces that drive plate accretionary wedge.
motions change and a subduction zone ❖ In summary, the growth of mountain belts at
develops along the margin of the continent. It subduction zones is a response to crustal
is along these active continental margins that thickening caused by the addition of mantle
the structural elements of a developing derived igneous rocks and sediments scraped
mountain belt gradually take form. from the descending oceanic slab.
❖ This subduction zone probably formed prior
to the breakup of the supercontinent of Collisional Mountain Building .
Pangaea. ❖ Most major mountain belts are generated
❖ In an idealized Andean-type subduction, when one or more buoyant crustal fragments
convergence of the continental block and the collide with a continental margin as a result of
subducting oceanic plate leads to deformation subduction.
and metamorphism of the continental margin. ❖ Oceanic lithosphere, which is relatively
❖ Once the oceanic plate descends to about dense, readily subducts.
100 kilometers (60 miles), partial melting of ❖ Continental lithosphere, which contains
mantle rockabove the subducting slab significant amounts of low-density crustal
generates magma that migrates upward. rocks, is too buoyant to undergo subduction.
❖ Thick continental crust greatly impedes the ❖ Consequently, the arrival of a crustal fragment
ascent of magma. Consequently, a high at a trench results in a collision with the
percentage of the magma that intrudes the margin of the adjacent continental block and
crust never reaches the surface. an end to subduction.
❖ Instead, it crystallizes at depth to form Terranes and Mountain Building
plutons. ● The process of collision and accretion (joining
❖ Eventually, uplifting and erosion exhume together) of comparatively small crustal
these igneous bodies and associated fragments to a continental margin has
metamorphic rocks. generated many of the mountainous regions
❖ Once they are exposed at the surface, these that rim the Pacific.
massive structures are called batholiths. ● Geologists refer to these accreted crustal
❖ Composedof numerous plutons, batholiths blocks as terranes.
form the core of the Sierra Nevada in ● TERRANE - refers to any crustal fragment that
California and are prevalent in the Peruvian has a geologic history distinct from that of the
Andes. adjoining terranes.
❖ During the development of this continental Nature of Terranes
volcanic arc, sediment derived from the land ● Research suggests that prior to their accretion
and scraped from the subducting plate is to a continental block, some of these
plastered against the landward side of the fragments may have been microcontinents
trench like piles of dirt in front of a bulldozer. similar to the modern day island of
● ACCREATIONARY WEDGE: the Madagascar, located east of Africa in the
chaotic accumulation of sedimentary Indian Ocean.
and metamorphic rocks with ● Many others were island arcs similar to Japan,
occasional scraps of ocean crust. the Philippines, and the Aleutian Islands.
❖ Prolonged subduction can build an ● Still others may have been submerged
accretionary wedge that is large enough to oceanic plateaus created by massive
stand above sea level. outpourings of basaltic lavas associated with
❖ Andean-type mountain belts are composed mantle plumes.
of two roughly parallel zones: the volcanic arc ● More than 100 of these relatively small crustal
develops on the continental block. fragments are presently known to exist.
❖ It consists of volcanoes and large intrusive Accretion and Orogenesis
bodies intermixed with high-temperature ● As oceanic plates move, they carry
metamorphic rocks. embedded oceanic plateaus, volcanic island

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 arcs, and microcontinents to an Andean-type extend deep into the supporting material
subduction zone. below.
● When an oceanic plate contains small ➢ Thus, lofty mountains such as the Himalayas
seamounts, these structures are generally are muchlike the thicker wooden blocks.
subducted along with the descending oceanic
slab.
● However, large thick units of oceanic crust,
composed of abundant “light” igneous rocks,
render the oceanic lithosphere too buoyant to
subduct. If another slab of crust were placed atop one of the
● In these situations, a collision between the blocks, the combined block would sink until it
crustal fragment and the continental margin reached a new isostatic (gravitational) balance.
occurs. At this point, the top of the combined block would be
● The sequence of events that happen when an higher than before,and the bottom would be lower.
island arc reaches an Andean-type margin. This process of establishing a new level of
● Rather than subduct, the upper crustal layers gravitational equilibrium by loading or unloading is
of these thickened zones are peeled from the called isostatic adjustment.
descending plate and thrust in relatively thin
sheets upon the adjacent continental block. The processes of uplift and erosion continue until the
● Because subduction often continues for 100 mountain block reaches “normal” crustal thickness.
million years or longer, several crustal
fragments can be transported to the When this occurs, these once-elevated structures will
continental margin. be near sea level, and the once-deeply buried interior
● Each collision displaces earlier accreted of the mountain will be exposed at the surface. In
terranes further inland, adding to the zone of addition, as mountains are worn down, the eroded
deformation as well as to the thickness and sediment is deposited on adjacent landscapes,
lateral extent of the continental margin. causing these areas to subside.
Continental Collisions
● The Himalayas, Appalachians, Urals, and Alps HOW HIGH IS TOO HIGH?
represent mountain belts that were formed by ● As mountaintops are elevated, gravity-driven
the closure of major ocean basins. processes such as erosion and mass wasting
● Continental collisions result in the are accelerated, carving the deformed strata
development of mountains characterized by into rugged landscapes.
shortened and thickened crust achieved ● Equally important, however, is the fact that
through folding and faulting. gravity also acts on the rocks within these
● Some mountainous regions have crustal massive structures.
thicknesses that exceed 70 kilometers. ● The higher the mountain, the greater the
downward force on rocks near the base.
Earth’s Varied Topography . ● Eventually, the rocks deep within the
❖ The causes of Earth’s varied topography are developing mountain, which are relatively
complex and cumulative. warm and weak, begin to flow laterally.
❖ Geologists know that colliding plates provide ● Mountains are altered by a process called
the tectonic forces that thicken and elevate gravitational collapse, which involves
crustal rocks during mountain building. ductile spreading at depth and normal
❖ Simultaneously, weathering and erosion sculpt faulting and subsidence in the upper, brittle
Earth’s surface into a vast array of landforms. portion of the crust.
❖ In addition, up-and-down motions in the ● The horizontal compressional forces that are
mantle can change the elevation of a region. driving India into Asia are greater than the
PRINCIPLE OF ISOSTASY . vertical force of gravity. However, once
➢ During the 1840s, researchers discovered that India’s northward trekends, the downward
Earth’s low-density crust “floats” on top of the pull of gravity, as well as weathering and
high-density, deformable rocks of themantle. erosion, will become the dominant forces
➢ The concept of a floating crust in gravitational acting on this mountainous region.
balance is called isostasy. Continents Versus Ocean Basins
➢ The principle of isostasy helps us understand ● Because continental crust is considerably
many large-scale variations on Earth’ surface— thicker than oceanic crust—35 kilometers
from towering mountains to deep-ocean compared to 7 kilometers on average—we
basins. would expect the ocean floor to lie at a lower
➢ Compressional mountains stand high above elevation.
the surrounding terrain because crustal ● Continental rocks have an average density of
thickening creates buoyant crustal “roots” that about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter,
whereas oceanic crust is somewhat more

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 dense (about 3.0 grams per cubic
centimeter).
● Thus, continental crust is less dense and
thicker than oceanic crust, which largely
explains the elevation differences between the
continents and the ocean basins.

END OF LESSON 3.

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LESSON 4 Stratigraphy . processes, stating, "The present is the key to
the past."
GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE . ➢ Hutton provided verifiable observations to
❖ Generated in 1869 by John Wesley Powell, support his ideas, emphasizing the cumulative
who was later to head the U.S. Geological
effects of weak, slow-acting processes over
Survey, led a pioneering expedition down the
long periods.
Colorado River and through the Grand
Canyon. Geology Today
1. Continuing Relevance of
❖ Powell realized that the evidence for an Uniformitarianism
ancient Earth is concealed in its rocks.
- Uniformitarianism remains as relevant as it
❖ Like the pages in a long and complicated was in Hutton's time, offering insights into the
history book, rocks record the geological past by studying current geological
events and changing lifeforms of the past. processes.
❖ Interpreting Earth history is a prime goal of
the science of geology. - While Earth's processes may vary in intensity,
they collectively act over extended periods to
❖ Like a modern-day sleuth, the geologist must shape the landscape.
interpret clues found preserved in the rocks.
❖ By studying rocks, especiallysedimentary
rocks, and the features they contain, Relative Dating Principles
geologists can unravel the complexities of the 1. Introduction to Relative Dating
past. - Relative dating, based on the
sequence of rock layers, aims to
❖ Geological events by themselves, however, establish the order of geological
have little meaning until they are put into a events.
time perspective.
- Numerical dating methods, reliant
PALEONTOLOGY . on radioactivity, supplement relative
➢ is the scientific study of fossils, integrating dating.
geology and biology to understand Earth's
2. Law of Superposition
evolutionary history.
- Nicolaus Steno introduced the Law
➢ Fossils come in various forms, each offering of Superposition, stating that in an
valuable insights into the ancient life that once undisturbed sequence of sedimentary
inhabited the planet. rocks, each layer is older than the one
above and younger than the one
A Brief History of Geology below.
CATASTROPHISM . - This principle is applicable to
➢ In the mid-1600s, James Ussher, Anglican sedimentary rocks and is a
Archbishop of Armagh, published a work that fundamental concept in relative
profoundly influenced the perception of dating.
Earth's age. 3. Principle of Original Horizontality
➢ Ussher calculated Earth's creation at 4004 - Sedimentary layers are usually
B.C., which gained widespread acceptance deposited horizontally, and any
among Europe's scientific and religious deviations indicate post-depositional
leaders, even making its way into the Bible's geological activity.
margins. 4. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
➢ Catastrophists believed that Earth's - Faults and intrusions in rock layers must be
landscapes resulted from sudden and younger than the rocks they affect. This is
worldwide disasters triggered by known as the principle of cross-cutting
unknown causes, attempting to reconcile relationships.
Earth's processes with prevailing ideas about 5. Inclusions
its age. - Inclusions, fragments of one rock unit
within another, help establish relative
UNIFORMITARIANISM . ages by indicating that the rock
➢ began with James Hutton, a Scottish containing inclusions is younger than
physician and farmer, the father of modern the unit from which the inclusions
geology, who introduced the principle of came.
uniformitarianism. 6. Unconformities
➢ Uniformitarianism asserts that the same - Unconformities represent breaks in the rock
physical, chemical, and biological laws record, showing periods when sedimentation
operating today have also been at work ceased, erosion occurred, and then
throughout Earth's history. This principle deposition resumed.
emphasizes that understanding ancient rocks Three types of unconformities:
necessitates understanding present-day ● Angular Unconformity: Overlying flat-lying
strata rest on tilted or folded rocks.

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 ● Disconformity: Parallel strata with no
distinctive erosion surface. [S-S]
● Nonconformity: Younger sedimentary strata
rest on older metamorphic or igneous rocks.
[S-I]

Conditions Favoring Preservation

- Fossil preservation is a delicate process, Types of Trace Fossils
relying on specific conditions for the 1. Tracks and Burrows: Tracks are footprints
remnants of organisms to survive through left behind by animals as they moved through
geologic time. Some of the key conditions soft sediment. Burrows are holes or tunnels
include: created by organisms like worms or
❖ Rapid Burial: Fossilization often requires burrowing insects. Trace fossils provide
rapid burial, typically in sediment or other evidence of ancient behavior and locomotion.
material that shields the remains from decay, 2. Coprolites: Coprolites are fossilized
scavengers, and physical damage. excrement. They can provide insights into the
❖ Hard Parts: Fossils are more commonly diet and digestive systems of ancient
formed from organisms with hard parts like creatures.
shells, bones, and teeth because these 3. Gastroliths: Gastroliths are smooth, polished
structures are more resistant to decay. Soft stones found in the stomachs of some
tissues, in contrast, generally decompose dinosaurs and other reptiles. These stones
quickly and are rarely preserved as fossils. were likely ingested to aid in the grinding of
food, similar to the gizzard of a bird.
Types of Index Fossils
1. Unaltered Remains: In rare cases, entire Role of Fossils in Correlation
organisms can be preserved without 1. Correlation: Fossils help geologists correlate
significant alteration. For example, frozen rocks of similar age in different regions. The
mammoths from the last Ice Age are unaltered presence of the same fossils in different rock
remains. layers indicates a shared age.
2. Petrified Fossils: Petrification, or 2. Fossil Succession: The principle of fossil
mineralization, occurs when minerals succession shows that life on Earth has
gradually replace the organic material in an changed over time. By studying the fossils
organism's structure. Over time, the original found in different strata, geologists can
organic material is replaced by minerals like construct a timeline of the evolution of life on
silica or calcite. Earth.
3. Molds and Casts: A mold is a negative 3. Environmental Indicators: Fossils are
impression left by an organism in the valuable indicators of past environmental
surrounding sediment. Casts, on the other conditions. For example, the presence of
hand, are formed when a mold gets filled with marine fossils in a rock layer can indicate that
minerals, creating a 3D replica of the the area was once covered by a sea or ocean.
organism. Molds and casts are particularly
common with shells and bones.
4. Carbonized Fossils: These fossils result from
the compression and preservation of an END OF LESSON 4.
organism's carbon-rich materials, such as
leaves or woody parts. Carbonization often
leaves behind a thin, black carbon film of the
original organic material.
5. Impressions: Impressions occur when an
organism's shape is preserved as an
impression in the rock, but the actual organic
material is not preserved. For example, the
impression of a fern leaf can reveal intricate
details of the leaf's shape.
6. Preservation in Amber: Amber, fossilized
tree resin, can encase small organisms such
as insects. This transparent preservation
method allows scientists to study ancient life
in remarkable detail.

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