Introduction – Evolution

Evolution is one of the most important concepts in biology. It explains how living organism’s changes over long periods of
time and how new species are formed. The word evolution means "gradual change," and in science, it refers to the
changes in the characteristics of living things over generations.. It is a natural and gradual process through which species
adapt to their environment and new species may arise. Evolution helps us understand the history of life on Earth and the
connections between all living things.

The theory of evolution was first scientifically explained by Charles Darwin in the 19th century. According to his theory
of natural selection, only those organisms that are best suited to their environment survive and pass on their traits to
the next generation.

Evolution is supported by evidence from fossils, genetics, and the study of anatomy and embryos. By studying evolution,
scientists can trace the history of life, understand how organisms adapt to their environments, and even find solutions to
modern problems such as antibiotic resistance and environmental changes.

Theory of Evolution
Evolution is the process by which living organisms change over long periods of time. It explains how modern species have
developed from ancient ones through gradual changes.

• Lamarck (1744–1829): Proposed that traits developed during an organism's life can be passed to offspring (Theory of Use and Disuse).

• Charles Darwin (1809–1882): Introduced the concept of Natural Selection in his book {On the Origin of Species} (1859).
Examples of Evolution in Nature

• Peppered Moth – Color change due to pollution in England.

• Darwin’s Finches – Different beak shapes for different foods.
• Antibiotic Resistance – Bacteria evolving resistance to medicines.

Importance of Evolution

• Helps explain biodiversity.

• Shows how species adapt to environments.
• Useful in medicine, agriculture, and conservation

LAMARCK THEORY
This theory was based on the principle that all the physical changes occurring in an individual during its lifetime
are inherited by its offspring.This theory has been explained here. Lamarck’s theory proposes that organisms
can pass on characteristics acquired during their lifetime to their offspring. This theory suggests that traits
developed through frequent use become stronger and are inherited, while Organs or traits that are not used
deteriorate and may disappear over generations. Example: Lamarck believed that giraffes stretched their
necks to reach leaves high in trees. Over time, this effort caused their necks to become longer. These longer
necks were then passed on to their offspring.. Essentially, organisms adapt to their environment by developing
traits that are useful and losing those that are not, and these changes are then passed on.

Key Points of Lamarck’s Theory:

1. Use and Disuse – Structures grow with use and shrink with disuse.
 2. Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics – Traits developed during an organism’s life can be passed to offspring.
3. Innate Drive Toward Perfection – Organisms have a tendency to become more complex and adapted over time.

Lamarck’s ideas were later disproven, especially after Darwin's theory of natural selection and the discovery of genetics.
Modern science shows that traits must be in DNA to be inherited — using or not using an organ during life doesn’t change
DNA in a way that passes to offspring.

However, Lamarck was important in suggesting that species change over time, which was a revolutionary idea in his era.

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection:

1. Variation: Every species has natural variations (differences) among individuals.
2. Competition: Individuals compete for limited resources like food, water, and shelter.
3. Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with traits that help them survive are more likely to reproduce.
4. Inheritance: The advantageous traits are passed on to the next generation.
5. Speciation: Over time, these changes can create new species.

Example: Darwin’s Finches (Birds in the Galápagos Islands)

Darwin noticed that finches on different islands had different beak shapes, adapted to their food sources:

• Finches that ate seeds had short, strong beaks to crack them.
• Finches that ate insects had thin, sharp beaks to catch them.
• Over generations, the birds with beaks best suited for their food survived and reproduced.

> This is natural selection: nature "selects" the traits that help an organism survive {nature selects the fittest one}
 Evidence of Evolution

• Fossils – Show ancient organisms and their changes over time.

• Comparative Anatomy – Similar body structures (e.g., forelimbs of humans, cats, whales).
• Embryology – Similar development patterns in embryos.
• DNA Evidence – Shows genetic similarities between species.

1.Homologous Organs

• Definition: Organs that have a similar basic structure but may perform different functions in different species.
• Significance: Indicates common ancestry because these organs evolved from the same cell division with a common
ancestor.
• Example:
o The forelimbs of humans, wings of bats, flippers of whales, and front legs of horses.
o All have the same bone structure (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, etc.) but serve different functions.

2. Analogous Organs

• Definition: Organs that perform similar functions but do not have the same structural origin.
• Significance: Shows how different species can evolve similar traits independently (convergent evolution) to adapt to
similar environments.
• Example:
o Wings of insects and wings of birds.
o Both used for flying but structurally different—bird wings have bones; insect wings do not.

3. Vestigial Organs
 • Definition: Organs that have lost most of their original function through evolution.
• Significance: Indicates evolutionary history and that the organism’s ancestors used these organs.
• Example:
o Human appendix (no longer essential for digestion).
o Pelvic bones in whales (used to have legs when ancestors lived on land).

4. Paleobotanical Evidences

• Definition: Fossil records of ancient plants that show how plant species have changed over time.
• Significance: Provides direct evidence of evolution through fossilized remains of plants showing gradual changes.
• Example:
o Fossilized remains of early plants like Lycopods and Ferns showing the evolution of vascular tissues.
o Fossils of ancient flowering plants (angiosperms) that show how flowers evolved over millions of years.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVOLUTION

• Mutation

• Random changes in DNA sequence.

• Creates new genetic variations.
• Example: A mutation causing antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

Natural Selection

• Process where individuals with favourable traits survive and reproduce more.
• Leads to adaptation of populations.
• Example: Giraffes with longer necks can reach more food and survive better.
 Genetic Drift

• Random changes in gene frequencies, especially in small populations.

• Can cause loss of genetic variation.
• Example: A natural disaster randomly killing many individuals, changing allele frequencies.

Gene Flow (Migration)

• Movement of genes between populations due to migration.

• Introduces new alleles and increases genetic diversity.
• Example: Pollen from one plant population fertilizing flowers in another population.

Population Size

• Smaller populations are more affected by genetic drift.

• Larger populations maintain more genetic variation.

Environmental Changes

• Changes in climate, food supply, predators, etc., can alter selection pressures.
• Drives adaptation or extinction.

CONCLUSION

Evolution is a fundamental concept in biology that explains the gradual development of life on Earth over millions of years.
It describes how species change over time due to genetic variations and environmental pressures. Evidences such as
homologous organs, analogous organs, vestigial structures, and paleobotanical fossils strongly support the theory of
evolution and highlight the common ancestry of different organisms. Factors like mutation, natural selection, genetic drift,
gene flow, and environmental changes drive the process of evolution. Understanding evolution not only helps us trace the
history of life but also provides insights into biodiversity, adaptation, and the interconnectedness of all living organisms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY-

• www.wikipedia.com
• Byjus.com