Reasoning Mathematics - II 1 Introduction to Enumeration…

Welcome to Quantitative Skills and Reasoning! Just what are quantitative skills and
reasoning? The simple answer is working with numbers, making sense of data, and using
your brain to figure things out. This will cover fundamental concepts from problem
solving, statistics, probability, graphs, logic, sets, measurements, and finance.
In this chapter we will learn about;
 Introduction to quantitative reasoning
 Types of quantitative reasoning
 Overview of Mathematics
 Arithmetic and basic arithmetic operations
 Types of standard numbers system
 Base numbers system and its applications
 Contributions of mathematicians and statisticians especially Muslim scholars
 Inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning
 Exercises about e introduction to enumeration and its applications

What is Reasoning?
Reasoning is the ability to assess things rationally by applying logic based on new or
existing information when making a decision or solving a problem. It allows you to
weigh the benefits and disadvantages of two or more courses of action before choosing
the one with the most benefit or the one that suits your needs.

Types of Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning that uses formal logic and observations to prove a
theory or hypothesis. It can be used to apply a general law to a specific case or test
an induction. Its results typically have a logical certainty.
 Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples. It uses theories and assumptions to
validate observations. It can be used to apply a specific law to a general. Its results
are not always certain because it uses conclusions from observations to make
generalizations. It is helpful for extrapolation, prediction and part – to – whole
arguments.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 2 Introduction to Enumeration…

 Analogical Reasoning: Form of thinking that finds similarities between two or more
things and then use those characteristics to find other qualities common to them. It
is based on brain tendency. It can help you expand your understanding by looking
for similarities between different things.
 Abductive Reasoning: Type of reasoning that uses an observation or set of
observations to reach a logical conclusion. It is similar to inductive reasoning;
however it permits making best guesses to arrive at the simplest conclusions.
 Cause and Effect Reasoning: Type of thinking in which you show the linkage
between two events. It explains what may happen if an action takes place or why
things happen when some conditions are present.
 Critical Thinking: It involves extensive rational thought about a specific object in
order to come to a definitive conclusion. It is helpful in logic, computing and social
sciences.
 Decompositional Reasoning: It is the process of breaking things into constituent
parts to understand the function of each component and how it contributes to the
operation of the item as a whole. It is helpful in logic, computing, game theory,
product development, marketing and social sciences.
Quantitative Skills
Any skills that use or manipulate numbers are called quantitative skills. They help to
make sense of numerical, categorical or ordinal data and scientific concepts. It is helpful
in statistics, economics, algebra, finance, business, logic and social sciences.
Quantitative Reasoning / Quantitative Literacy / Enumeration
Quantitative Reasoning is the ability to assess mathematical ideas or things
rationally by applying logic based on new or existing information when making a
decision or solving a problem. It is application of mathematical concepts or skills to solve
real world problems.
Importance of Quantitative Skills / Enumeration
Enumeration is simply the application of critical thinking skills like analysis and
interpretation along with mathematical basics like algebra to quantitative information.
It refers to the ability to solve quantitative reasoning problems, or to making judgment
derived from quantitative reasoning in a variety of context. It helps to make sense of
numerical, categorical or ordinal data and scientific concepts. It is helpful in statistics,
economics, algebra, finance, business, logic and social sciences.
Quantitative Reasoning Examples
 Statistical Analysis: Analysts apply quantitative reasoning when they assess large
dataset to derive meaningful conclusions. They use statistical methods like
regression analysis and hypothesis testing to interpret data and distinguish patterns.
 Financial Planning: A financial planner utilizes quantitative reasoning for a client’s
investment strategy. This involves analyzing expected returns, tax implications and
risk factors.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 3 Introduction to Enumeration…

What is Mathematics?
The branch of science that deals with the numbers is called Mathematics. The world
“Mathematics” is derived from the Greek word “Mathematikos” which means “inclined
to learn”.
Mathematics is based on deductive reasoning though man's first experience with
mathematics was of an inductive nature. This means that the foundation of
mathematics is the study of some logical and philosophical notions. We elaborate in
simple terms that the deductive system involves four things:
Known Branches of Mathematics
 Logic: The Study of Principles of Reasoning.
 Arithmetic: Method for operating on numbers.
 Algebra: Method for working with unknown quantities.
 Geometry: The study of size and shape.
 Trigonometry: The study of triangles and their uses.
 Probability: The study of chance.
 Statistics: Method for analyzing data.
 Calculus: The study of quantities that change.
Number : A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, & label. It is
the mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or
other symbols in a consistent manner. It provides a unique representation of every
number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures.
Number System
A system of writing to express numbers. It presents unique representation of numbers.
Types of Standard Numbers
1. Natural Numbers
Common counting numbers. Natural numbers are also called “counting numbers”
which contains the set of positive integers that start at 1 and continue infinitely. The
set of natural numbers is represented by the letter “N”.i.e. N = {1,2,3,4,5….}.
2. Whole Numbers
In math, whole numbers are positive integers, including zero, that do not have any
decimal or fractional parts. The symbol for whole numbers is “W”.
i.e. W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...}.
3. Integers
Integers, also known as whole numbers or round numbers or positive or negative
numbers that don't have fractional or decimal parts. The symbol for integers is Z.
i.e. Z = {...,−1,−2,0,1,2,...}.
4. Rational Numbers
The set of rational numbers includes all the integers, each of which can be written as
a quotient with the integer as the numerator and one as the denominator.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 4 Introduction to Enumeration…

Rational number, in arithmetic, a number that can be represented as the quotient

 p 
p/q of two integers such that q ≠ 0. i.e. Q   x x  , q  0, p, q  Z  .
 q 
5. Irrational Numbers
Irrational numbers are real numbers that cannot be written as a fraction of two
integers, or in the form of p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Decimal Representation of Rational and Irrational Numbers
i) Terminating decimals: A decimal which has only a finite number of digits in its
decimal part, is called a terminating decimal. Thus 202.04, 0.0000415,
100000.41237895 are examples of terminating decimals. Since a terminating
decimal can be converted into a common fraction, so every terminating
decimal represents a rational number.
ii) Recurring Decimals: A decimal in which one or more digits repeat indefinitely
is called a recurring or periodic decimal. e.g., 1.333…, 21.134134… are both
recurring decimals.
iii) Non-terminating and Non-recurring decimal: A non-terminating, non-
recurring decimal is a decimal which neither terminates nor it is recurring. It is
not possible to convert such a decimal into a common fraction.
Thus a non-terminating, non-recurring decimal represents an irrational number.
Examples:
 25 
i) .25    is a rational number.
 100 
1 
ii) .333...    is a recurring decimal, it is a rational number.
3 
iii) 2.3   2.333... is a rational number.
 1
iv) 0.142857142857...    is a rational number.
 7
v) 0.01001000100001 ... is a non-terminating, non-periodic decimal, so it is an
irrational number.
vi) 214.121122111222 1111 2222 ... is also an irrational number.
vii) 1.4142135 ... is an irrational number.
viii) 7.3205080 ... is an irrational number.
ix) 1.709975947 ... is an irrational number.
x) 3.141592654...is an important irrational number called it  (Pi)which denotes
the constant ratio of the circumference of any circle to length of its diameter
circumference of any circle
i.e., 
length of its diameter
Reasoning Mathematics - II 5 Introduction to Enumeration…

6. Real Numbers
Real numbers can be positive or negative and include fractions, integers and
irrational numbers. They can be used in arithmetic operations and represented on a
number line. Real numbers include rational and irrational numbers. i.e. R  Q  Q .
7. Prime Numbers
Prime numbers are natural numbers that are divisible by only 1 and the number
itself. In other words, prime numbers are positive integers greater than 1 with
exactly two factors, 1 and the number itself. Some of the prime numbers include
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, etc.
8. Composite Numbers
A composite number is a natural number or a positive integer which has more than
two factors. For example, 15 has factors 1, 3, 5 and 15, hence it is a composite
number.
9. Complex Numbers
A complex number is a number that has both real and imaginary parts, and is written
in the form C  a  bi : a, b  R . For example 2  0i  2,1  3i.
10. Even & Odd Numbers
Even numbers are numbers that can be divided into two equal parts, while odd
numbers are numbers that cannot.
Even numbers: End in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8.
Odd numbers: End in 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9.

Arithmetic
Arithmetic is a field of mathematic that studies the characteristics of classical
operations on numbers, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponentiation and root extraction.
Arithmetic Operations
Arithmetic is the fundamental of mathematics that includes the operations of
numbers. These operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It is
one of the most important branches of mathematics that lays the foundation of the
subject for students.
Addition: Combines objects into a larger collection, or increases a value. It is
represented by the plus sign (+) and answer is called the sum. For example, 4 + 7 = 11
Subtraction: Finds the difference between numbers or quantities, or decreases a value.
It is represented by the minus sign (-) and the answer is called the difference.
For example, 9 - 7 = 2.
Multiplication: Multiplication is represented by the multiplication signs  or * .
For example, 8 multiplied by 4 is equal to 32, which can be written as 8  4  32 .
Division: Division is a method of dividing or distributing a number into equal parts. For
example, 16 divided by 4 is equal to 4, which can be written as 16 ÷ 4 = 4.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 6 Introduction to Enumeration…

Base Number System

A base number system, also known as a radix or numeral system, is a mathematical
notation that represents numbers using a specific set of digits or symbols. Each base
number system has its own unique characteristics and applications, and is used in
various fields such as mathematics, computer science, and engineering.
Some common base number systems are as follows:
Base 2 - Binary Number System
The binary number system is a base-2 number system that uses only two digits: 0 and 1.
Base 8 - Octal Number System
The octal number system is a base-8 number system that uses eight digits: 0-7.
Base 10 - Decimal Number System
The decimal number system is a base-10 number system that uses ten digits: 0-9.
Base 16 - Hexadecimal Number System
The hexadecimal number system is a base-16 number system that uses ten digits: 0-15.
Note that usually, the hexadecimal digits used are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,
and F, where the letters A through F represent the digits corresponding to the numbers
10 through 15 (in decimal notation).
1. What is the decimal expansion of the integer that has (1 0101 1111) 2 as its binary
expansion?
Solution: We have
1010111112  1.28  0.27  1.26  0.25 1.24  1.23 1.22 1.21 1.20  351
2. What is the decimal expansion of the number with octal expansion (7016)8?
Solution: Using the definition of a base b expansion with b = 8 tells us that
 70168  7.83  0.82 1.81  6.80  3598
3. What is the decimal expansion of the number with hexadecimal expansion
(2AE0B)16?
Solution: Using the definition of a base b expansion with b = 16 tells us that
 2 AEOB 16  2.164  10.163  14.162  0.161 11.160  175627
4. Find the octal expansion of (12345)10.
Solution:
8 12345
8 1543 - 1
8 192 – 7
8 24 – 0
3–0
Hence,(12345)10 = (30071)8
Reasoning Mathematics - II 7 Introduction to Enumeration…

5. Find the hexadecimal expansion of (177130)10.

Solution:
16 173130
16 11070 - 10
16 691 – 14
16 43 – 3
2 – 11
Hence, (177130)10 = (2B3EA)16
(Recall that the integers 10, 11, and 14 correspond to the hexadecimal digits A, B,
and E, respectively.)
6. Find the binary expansion of (241)10.
Solution:
2 241
2 120 - 1
2 60 – 0
2 30 – 0
2 15 – 0
2 7–1
2 3–1
2 1–1
Hence,(241)10 = (1111 0001)2
Here, a table is given for the integers 0 to 15 with their expansions in Decimal,
Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal systems.
Hexadecimal, Octal and binary Representation of the Integers 0 through 15.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
7. Find the octal expansions of (11 1110 1011 1100)2.
Solution:
To convert (11 1110 1011 1100)2 into octal notation we group the binary digits into
blocks of three, adding initial zeros at the start of the leftmost block if
necessary.These blocks, from left to right, are 011, 111, 010, 111, and 100,
corresponding to 3, 7, 2, 7,and 4, respectively.
Consequently, (11 1110 1011 1100)2 = (37274)8.
8. Find the hexadecimal expansions of (11 1110 1011 1100)2.
Solution:
To convert (11 1110 10111100)2 into hexadecimal notation we group the binary
digits into blocks of four, adding initialzeros at the start of the leftmost block if
necessary. These blocks, from left to right, are 0011,1110, 1011, and 1100,
corresponding to the hexadecimal digits 3, E, B, and C, respectively.
Consequently, (11 1110 1011 1100)2 = (3EBC)16.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 8 Introduction to Enumeration…

9. Find the binary expansions of (765)8 and (A8D)16.

Solution:
To convert (765)8 into binary notation, we replace each octal digit by a block of
three binarydigits. These blocks are 111, 110, and 101.
Hence, (765)8 = (1 1111 0101)2. To convert (A8D)16into binary notation, we replace
each hexadecimal digit by a block of four binary digits. Theseblocks are 1010, 1000,
and 1101.
Hence, (A8D)16 = (1010 1000 1101)2.

Contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians especially

Muslim Scholars
Mathematicians and statisticians have profoundly impacted human knowledge and
innovation. Mathematicians have laid the foundational framework for groundbreaking
discoveries, shaping our understanding of the world. They've developed powerful tools
and theories, driving advancements in medicine, finance, technology and more.
Statisticians have revolutionized decision-making processes, empowering policymakers,
businesses and researchers with data-driven insights.
Together, mathematicians and statisticians form a formidable alliance, harnessing
numerical prowess and data analysis to tackle pressing global challenges. Their synergy
yields transformative breakthroughs, reshaping our understanding of complexity,
uncertainty and change. From optimizing processes to mitigating risks, their work drives
progress in various industries, including finance, environmental science, public health
and economics. Here is the list with era, date of birth, and date of death:

Mathematicians
Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
Developing binomial theorem and new theories of infinite series. Developed calculus,
laws of motion, and universal gravitation. Published "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica" (1687). Laid the foundation for classical mechanics and modern physics.

Archimedes (c. 287 BC - c. 212 BC)

Deriving an approximation of pi (π), defining and investigating the Archimedean spiral,
and devising a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers.
Discovered the principle of buoyancy and developed fluid mechanics. Made significant
contributions to geometry and the study of spheres, cylinders, and cones. Invented
various machines, including the Claw of Archimedes and the Archimedes' screw
Reasoning Mathematics - II 9 Introduction to Enumeration…

Euclid(fl. 300 BC)

Using his system of proofs, Euclid proved some well-known items in mathematics, such
as the Pythagorean Theorem. He demonstrated how to calculate the volumes of solids,
such as cones and pyramids, and described geometric number sequences. Authored the
famous book "Elements," systematizing geometry and establishing axioms. He
developed the concept of theorems and proofs and Introduced the concept of irrational
numbers.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)
Laplace formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which
appears in many branches of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role in
forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is also named
after him. He wrote the book The System of the World. Developed probability theory
and the concept of expected value. Made significant contributions to celestial
mechanics and the study of planetary motion. Also published "A Philosophical Essay on
Probabilities" (1812).
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Developed the theory of special relativity and the famous equation E = mc2.
Introduced the concept of spacetime and the speed of light as a universal constant.
Made significant contributions to the development of quantum mechanics.
Albert Einstein's most popular book is Relativity: The Special and General Theory.
Statisticians
Ronald Fisher (1890-1962)
Developed modern statistical inference and experimental design.
Introduced the concept of null hypothesis testing. Made significant contributions to the
development of maximum likelihood estimation.
Karl Pearson (1857-1936)
Developed the correlation coefficient and principal component analysis.
Introduced the concept of the p-value. Published "The Grammar of Science" (1892).
William Gosset (1876-1937)
Developed the t-distribution and statistical hypothesis testing. Introduced the concept
of the t-test. Made significant contributions to quality control and statistical process
control.
John Turkey (1915-2000)
Developed exploratory data analysis and the Fast Fourier Transform. Introduced the
concept of the box plot. Made significant contributions to statistical graphics and
visualization.
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
Developed statistical graphics and applied statistics to medicine. Introduced the concept
of the polar area chart. Made significant contributions to hospital sanitation and public
health.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 10 Introduction to Enumeration…

Muslim Scholars
Muslim Scholars played a pivotal role in shaping the Islamic Golden Age. Their
groundbreaking contributions transformed various fields of study. Contribution of some
scholars is as follows:
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (780AD–850AD) was a Persian mathematician,
astronomer, astrologer geographer and a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.
He was born in Persia of that time around 780. Al-Khwarizmi was one of the learned
men who worked in the House of Wisdom. The House of Wisdom was a scientific
research and teaching center. Al-Khwarizmi developed the concept of the algorithm in
mathematics Al-Khwarizmi’s algebra is regarded as the foundation and cornerstone of
the sciences. He is known as the “father of algebra”. His note able work is "Al-Kitab-
almukhtasar fi hisab al-jabar wal-muqabala", text on algebra.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died in c. 850 being remembered as one of the most
seminal scientific minds of early Islamic culture.
Ibn al-Haytham
Ibn al-Haytham Latinised as Alhazen (965AD–1040AD) was a medieval mathematician,
astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present-day Iraq. Referred to
as "the father of modern optics". He made significant contributions to the principles of
optics and the use of scientific experiments. He made significant contributions to
geometry algebra and number theory. His most influential work is titled Kitāb al-Manāẓir
"Book of Optics" in Latin Edition. Ibn al-Haytham, who lived a thousand years ago, is
finally being recognized as the world's first true scientist.
Omar Khayyam
Omar Khayyam (1048AD–1131AD) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet.
He made great contributions to these areas. He lived during the period of the Seljuk
dynasty, around the time of the First Crusade. As a mathematician, he is most notable
for his work on the classification and solution of cubic equations. He is best known for
his work in geometric algebra, the Jalil calendar, and his poetry collected as, The
Rubaiyat.
Ibrahim ibn Sinan
Ibrahim ibn Sinan (980AD-1037AD) was born in Baghdad. He was a mathematician and
astronomer who belonged to a family of scholars originally from Harran in northern
Mesopotamia. He belonged to a religious sect of star worshippers known as the Sabians
of Harran. Ibrahim ibn Sinan studied geometry, in particular tangents to circles. He
made advances in the quadrature of the parabola and the theory of integration,
generalizing the work of Archimedes, which was unavailable at the time. Ibrahim ibn
Sinan is often considered to be one of the most important mathematicians of his time.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 11 Introduction to Enumeration…

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135AD-1213AD) was an Iranian mathematician and astronomer of
the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages). Sharaf al-Tusi was an Islamic
mathematician who wrote a treatise on cubic equations. Al-Tusi is best known for his
mathematically impressive study of the conditions under which cubic equations have a
positive real root and of numerical methods for finding a solution of such equations. He
made significant contributions to development of Algebraic geometry and cubic
equation.
Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni
Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973AD–1048AD) known as al-Biruni, was
a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has
been called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern geodesy",
Founder of Indology and the first anthropologist. Al-Biruni was well versed in physics,
mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a
historian, chronologist, and linguist. In 1017, he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and
wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind ("The History of India"). Al-
Biruni developed many instruments for astronomy and geography measurements. He
was also a very good encyclopedia writer. His famous achievements were, studying
geography of India, accurately measuring Earth's radius, comparing different calendars
& He enabled direction of Qibla.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive and detective reasoning are two fundamental approaches to logical
thinking, empowering us to navigate the complexities of information, arrive at informed
conclusions, and uncover new insights.
Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples.
Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
10. Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists. a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we
predict that the most probable next number in the list is 3 larger than 15,
which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by
3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more
than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the
next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 12 Introduction to Enumeration…

11. Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists. a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ? b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the next number in the list is 5 larger than 25, which is 30.
b. The first two numbers differ by 3. The second and third numbers differ by 5. It
appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 2 more than
the preceding difference. Since 17 and 26 differ by 9, we predict that the next
number will be 11 more than 26, which is 37.
12. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.Complete the above procedure
for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about
the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the
original number.
Solution: Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce
the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8  5  40
Add 6: 40  6  46
Divide by 2: 46  2  23
Subtract 3: 23  3  20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our
original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of
40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting
number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following the given
procedure will produce a resulting number that is four times the original number.
13. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add
15 to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 5. Complete the above
procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and
the size of the original number.
Solution:
2  9  15
If the original number is 2, then  5  6 which is three times the original
3
7  9  15
number. If the original number is 7, then  5  21 which is three times the
3
12  9  15
original number. If the original number is 12 then  5  36
3
Which is three times the original number. It appears, by inductive reasoning, that
the procedure produces a number that is three times the original number.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 13 Introduction to Enumeration…

14. Examine the table below. Identify a pattern and then use that pattern to find the
missing terms in the sequence.
Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Value 1 3 9 27 81
Solution:
With this problem we see that the pattern to get the next number in the sequence is
to multiply the previous term in the sequence by 3. So to find the 6th, 7th, and 8th
terms in the sequence we will use this pattern. The 5th term is 81. The 6th term is
3 81  243, the 7th term is 3 243  729, and the 8th term is 3  729  2187.
15. Examine the table below. Identify a pattern and then use that pattern to find the
missing terms in the sequence.
Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Value 58 46 34 22 10
Solution:
With this problem we see that the pattern to get the next number in the sequence is
to subtract 12 from the previous term in the sequence. To find the 6th, 7th, and 8th
terms in the sequence we will use this pattern. The 5th term is 10. The 6th term is
10 12  2, 7th term is 2 12  14, and 8th term is 14  12  26.
16. Examine the table below. Identify a pattern and then use that pattern to find the
missing terms in the sequence.
Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Value 5 10 30 120 240 720 2880
Solution:
With this sequence we see to go from 5 to 10 we multiply by 2. To go from 10 to 30
we multiply by 3. To go from 30 to 120 we multiply by 4. Then we see that this
pattern repeats to get the next three terms in the sequence.
2 120  240, 3 240  720 and 4  720  2880 . So we will use this same pattern to
get the 8th , 9th , and 10th terms. The 8th term is 2  2880  5760 , the 9th term is
3  5760  2880 , and the 10th term is 4 17280  69120 .
17. Use the data in the table on the preceding page and inductive reasoning to answer
each of the following.
Length of pendulum in units Period of pendulum in heart beats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
a. If a pendulum has a length of 25 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Reasoning Mathematics - II 14 Introduction to Enumeration…

Solution:
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length.
Thus we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 25 units will have a
period of 5 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that
of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has
a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears
that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
18. A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an under-water earthquake. The velocity of a
tsunami as it approaches land depends on the height of the tsunami. Use the table
at the left and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
Height of Tsunami in feet Velocity of Tsunami in feet per second
4 6
9 9
16 12
25 15
36 18
49 21
64 24
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?
Solution:
a. It appears that when the velocity of a tsunami is doubled, it height is
quadrupled.
b. A tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second will have a height that is four
times that of a tsunami with a speed of 15 feet per second. Thus, we predict a
height of 4  25  100 feet for a tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second.
19. The last four times I have driven downtown at 6pm there has been traffic. Use
inductive reasoning to draw your conclusion.
Solution:
My conclusion is that there is always traffic downtown around 6pm.
20. Consider the statement and determine if it is inductive or deductive:
"Every month has 30days in it. July is month. Therefore it has 30days in it. "
Solution:
This statement starts with a generalization and it’s then applied to a specific case.
This follows the pattern of deductive reasoning. The statements are not necessarily
true, but if every month has 30 days in it, then it would be true.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 15 Introduction to Enumeration…

21. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number. Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the
number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n  6
8n  6
Divide the sum by 2:  4n  3
2
Subtract 3: 4n  3  3  4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example
produces a number that is four times the original number.
22. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is three times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5. Hint: Let n represent the original number.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 6: 6n
Add 1 to the product: 6n  10
6n  10
Divide the sum by 2:  3n  5
2
Subtract 5: 3n  5  5  3n
The procedure always produces a number that is three times the original number.
Inductive Reasoning versus Deductive Reasoning

 For Inductive Reasoning we start with examples or cases, and then draw general
conclusions.
 For Deductive Reasoning we start with a general statement and apply it to examples
or cases.
In next Example we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or
deductive reasoning.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 16 Introduction to Enumeration…

23. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive

reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year
the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated my home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home
improvement will cost more than $35,000.
Solution:
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an
example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument
is an example of deductive reasoning.
24. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive
reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel To the Nines is a Janet
Evanovich novel. Thus To the Nines is worth reading.
b. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries, because it
has not paid out any money during the last 45 tries.
Solution:
a. The conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, so the argument is an
example of deductive reasoning.
b. The argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so the argument
is an example of inductive reasoning.
25. Consider the statement and determine if it is inductive or deductive:
" Pizza Hut has a lunch buffet. Stevi B’s has a lunch buffet. Therefore all pizza
restaurants have a lunch buffet."
Solution:
This statement starts with two examples about pizza restaurants having lunch
buffets. Based on these examples a generalization is made. This follows the pattern
of inductive reasoning.
26. Consider the statement and determine if it is inductive or deductive:
"All pro wrestlers have a catch phrase. Macho Man Randy Savage was a pro
wrestler. Therefore he had a catch phrase. ”
Solution:
This statement starts with a generalization about pro wrestlers having catch
phrases. It’s then applied to the specific case of Macho Man Randy Savage. This
follows the pattern of deductive reasoning.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 17 Introduction to Enumeration…

27. A movie director tells her producer (who pays for the movie) not to worry-her film
will be a hit. As evidence, she cites the following facts: She’s hired big stars for the
lead roles, she has a great advertising campaign planned, and it’s a sequel to her
last hit movie. Explain why this argument is inductive, and evaluate its strength.
Solution:
Each of the three pieces of evidence is a specific characteristic of her movie.
She uses them to support the more general conclusion that her movie will be a hit.
Because the conclusion is more general than the premises, the argument is
inductive. In this case, her argument is relatively weak. As all producers know, even
the best planned movies can flop.
28. Evaluate the following argument, and discuss the truth of its conclusion.
Geological evidence shows that, for thousands of years, the San Andreas Fault has
suffered a major earthquake at least once every hundred years. Therefore, we
should expect another earthquake on the fault during the next one hundred years.
Solution:
This argument is inductive because it cites many specific past events as evidence
that another earthquake will occur. The fact that the pattern has held for thousands
of years suggests a strong likelihood that it will continue to hold. The argument
does not prove that another earthquake will occur, but it makes another
earthquake seem quite likely. The argument is strong.

Abductive Reasoning
Type of reasoning that uses an observation or set of observations to reach a logical
conclusion. It is similar to inductive reasoning; however it permits making best guesses
to arrive at the simplest conclusions. It is a form of logical reasoning that involves
making an educated guess or hypothesis based on incomplete or limited information.
It involves:
1. Observing a phenomenon or pattern
2. Identifying possible explanations
3. Selecting the most plausible explanation
4. Testing and refining the hypothesis
Abductive reasoning is essential in mathematics, science, and problem-solving.
29. What is the next number in the sequence: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?
Solution:
32 (recognizing a geometric progression)
30. A bakery sells 250 loaves of bread per day. If each loaf costs $2, how much money
does the bakery make daily?
Solution:
$500 (assuming each loaf sells at the given price)
Reasoning Mathematics - II 18 Introduction to Enumeration…

31. A car travels 250 miles in 5 hours. What is its average speed?
Solution:
50 mph (using distance = rate × time)
32. What is the sum of the interior angles of a triangle?
Solution:
180° (using geometric properties)
33. A survey shows 3/5 of students prefer pizza. If 100 students participated, how
many prefer pizza?
Solution:
60 (applying proportionality)
34. Solve for x: 2x + 5 = 11
Solution:
x = 3 (using algebraic manipulation)
35. A rectangle has a perimeter of 24 cm. If its length is 8 cm, what is its width?
Solution:
4 cm (using perimeter = 2(length + width))
36. What is the probability of rolling a 6 on a fair six-sided die?
Solution:
1/6 (using probability theory)
37. A water tank fills at 0.5 liters/minute. How long to fill a 30-liter tank?
Solution:
60 minutes (using rate × time)
38. Find the missing value: 3, 6, 12, ?, 48
Solution:
24 (recognizing a geometric progression)
39. What is the next number in the sequence: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, ?
Solution:
16 (recognizing a quadratic progression)
40. A snail moves 3 cm/hour. How far will it move in 5 hours?
Solution:
15 cm (using rate × time)
41. Solve for x: x 2 + 5x - 6 = 0
Solution:
x = -6 or x = 1 (using quadratic formula)
42. A circle has a circumference of 20π cm. What is its radius?
Solution:
10 cm (using circumference = 2πr)
43. What is the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon?
Solution:
360° (using geometric properties)
44. A survey shows 2/3 of students prefer math. If 150 students participated, how
many prefer math?
Solution:
100 (applying proportionality)
Reasoning Mathematics - II 19 Introduction to Enumeration…

45. Find the missing value: 2, 6, 12, 20, ?

Solution: 30 (recognizing a quadratic progression)
46. A cylinder has a volume of 40π cm3 . If its height is 10 cm, what is its radius?
Solution: 2 cm (using volume   r 2 h )
47. What is the probability of drawing an ace from a standard deck of cards?
Solution: 4/52 = 1/13 (using probability theory)
48. Solve for x: 3x - 2 = 14
Solution: x = 16/3 (using algebraic manipulation)
49. Explain the concept of abductive reasoning and its significance in mathematical
problem-solving.
Solution: Abductive reasoning involves making educated guesses or hypotheses based
on incomplete information. In mathematics, it's essential for:
1. Pattern recognition: Identifying relationships between numbers or shapes.
2. Hypothesis formation: Proposing solutions to problems.
3. Logical inference: Drawing conclusions from available data.
Abductive reasoning facilitates mathematical discovery, fosters critical thinking,
and enhances problem-solving skills.
50. Discuss how abductive reasoning differs from deductive and inductive reasoning.
Solution: Abductive reasoning differs from:
1. Deductive reasoning: Abductive reasoning involves uncertainty, whereas
deductive reasoning draws definitive conclusions.
2. Inductive reasoning: Abductive reasoning focuses on hypothesis formation,
whereas inductive reasoning seeks generalizations.
Abductive reasoning bridges the gap between deductive and inductive reasoning,
enabling mathematicians to navigate uncertainty.
51. Describe a real-world scenario where abductive reasoning is essential.
Solution:
Medical diagnosis: Doctors use abductive reasoning to:
1. Identify symptoms
2. Formulate hypotheses
3. Test and refine diagnoses
Abductive reasoning enables doctors to make informed decisions amidst
uncertainty, saving lives.
52. Analyze the role of abductive reasoning in resolving mathematical paradoxes.
Solution: Abductive reasoning helps resolve paradoxes by:
1. Identifying underlying assumptions
2. Formulating alternative hypotheses
3. Evaluating evidence
Examples: Russell's Paradox, the Liar Paradox.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 20 Introduction to Enumeration…

Exercise
1. Is the following statement inductive or deductive reasoning?
"All Noble prize winners get a monetary award. Jennifer Doudna won a Noble Prize,
so she must have received money."
2. Is the following statement inductive or deductive reasoning?
"My friend and my brother graduated from Harvard and immediately got great jobs.
Therefore, everyone who graduates from Harvard will immediately get a great job. "
3. Find a counter example to disprove the hypothesis: If two even numbers are divided,
the quotient is a whole number.
4. Find a counter example to disprove the hypothesis: If a number is added to itself,
the sum is greater than the original number.
5. Describe the pattern found in the following sequence of numbers and then find in
the next two values: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16.
6. Describe the pattern found in the following sequence of days and then find in the
next two values: Monday, Thursday, Sunday, Wednesday, Saturday.
7. In Exercises i–x, use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number
in each list.
i. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ?
ii. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, ?
iii. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ?
iv. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?
v. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ?
vi. 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, ?
3 5 7 9 11 13
vii. , , , , , ,?
5 7 9 11 13 15
1 2 3 4 5 6
viii. , , , , , ,?
2 3 4 5 6 7
ix. 2,7, 3 ,2,-8, 3 , 13 , 8 , 18 ,?
x. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35,?
8. Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.
i. Andrea enjoyed reading the Dark Tower series by Stephen King, so I know she
will like his next novel.
ii. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure A
has exactly five sides.
iii. Every English setter likes to hunt. Duke is an English setter, so Duke likes to hunt.
iv. Cats don’t eat tomatoes. Scat is a cat. Therefore, Scat does not eat tomatoes.
v. A number is a “neat” number if the sum of the cubes of its digits equals the
number. Therefore, 153 is a “neat” number.
vi. The Atlanta Braves have won five games in a row.
Reasoning Mathematics - II 21 Introduction to Enumeration…

9. Convert the decimal expansion of each of these integersto a binary expansion.

a) 231
b) 4532
c) 97644
10. Convert the binary expansion of each of these integers toa decimal expansion.
a) (1 1111)2
b) (10 0000 0001)2
c) (1 0101 0101)2
d) (110 1001 0001 0000)2
11. Convert the octal expansion of each of these integers toa binary expansion.
a) (572)8
b) (1604)8
c) (423)8
d) (2417)8
12. Convert the binary expansion of each of these integers toan octal expansion.
a) (1111 0111)2
b) (1010 1010 1010)2
c) (111 0111 0111 0111)2
d) (101 0101 0101 0101)2
13. Convert the hexadecimal expansion of each of these integers to a binary expansion.
a) (80E)16
b) (135AB)16
c) (ABBA)16
d) (DEFACED)16