BASIC SCIENCE

CLASS 1

INTRODUCTION (01:02 PM):

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary exam:

General Studies Paper I - General Science.

Mains exam:

General Studies Paper III- Biotechnology.

Weightage in the Prelims:

2024 - 1 Question.

2023 - 3 Questions.

2022 - 5 Questions.

2021 - 5 Questions.

Topics:

Food and nutrition.

Cell biology.

Health and disease (i.e. immunity, vaccine, etc.).

Organ system.

Genetics and biotechnology.

Sources:

1) NCERT:

Science NCERTs of the classes 6th to 8th are a must.

Refer to Science NCERTs of the class 9th and 10th selectively.

You can refer to Biology NCERTs of classes 11th and 12th for specific
topics.

2) Current Affairs:

Newspaper - Either The Hindu or Indian Express.

Monthly Current Affairs Magazine.

FOOD AND NUTRITION (01:20 PM):

Nutrients:

Nutrients are present in our food.

They are essential to the life and health of a person providing it with
energy and acting as building blocks for repair and growth.

1) Macronutrients.

2) Micronutrients.

Fig: Macro vs Micro

Macronutrient:

They are present in our food in a larger quantity.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are macronutrients.

Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are naturally occurring organic compounds which

contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

They are present in our food and can be broken down to release
energy.

Different numbers of carbohydrate units can be joined together

through glycosidic bonds.

Types of carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides/Simple carbohydrates - Single unit.

Oligosaccharides/Simple carbohydrates - 2 to 10 units.

Polysaccharides/Complex carbohydrates - More than 10 units.

Monosaccharides:

Examples:

Glucose is the main energy source.

Fructose is the fruit sugar.

Galactose is a component of milk.

Oligosaccharides:

Examples:
Sucrose - Common table sugar and it is made up of glucose and
fructose.

Lactose is the milk sugar and is made up of glucose and galactose.

Maltose is present in malt-based syrups (Grain-based syrups - Barley

syrups) and is a combination of glucose with another molecule of
glucose.

Polysaccharides:

They are complex carbohydrates formed by the joining of more than 10

units by glycosidic bonds.

Examples:

Starch.

Cellulose (found in plants).

Glycogen is found only in animals.

All three (starch, cellulose, and glycogen) are made up of glucose.

Starch is the storage product of glucose in plants and glycogen is the

storage product of glucose in animals.

Cellulose makes the cell walls of plants.

Proteins (01:48 PM):

Proteins are nitrogenous organic compounds made of carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

They can sometimes contain sulfur.

They are made up of long chains of amino acids joined by a peptide
bond.

Types of proteins:

Fibrous proteins:

The amino acid chains are arranged in a linear pattern.

Structure forming proteins or structural proteins.

Examples:

Mysoine which makes the muscle of the body.

Collagen - Skin.

Keratine - Hair and nails.

Globular proteins:

The amino acid chains are arranged in a spherical shape.

Functional proteins.

Examples:

Some hormones - Insulin.

Blood plasma proteins - Albumin.

Enzymes - Biocatalyst (job is to help in different reactions to take

place).

Fats (02:06 PM):

Sources - Ghee, butter, meat, fish, eggs, avocado, etc.

Fats are organic macronutrients made of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.

Triglycerides are the major form in which fats are stored in the body.

It is made up of three units of fatty acids joined to one unit of glycerol

by an ester bond.

Fats are insoluble in water.

Functions of fats:

Cell membrane.

Some vitamins are also based on fats such as A, D, E, and K.

Some hormones can also be fats, for example, sex hormones.

Insulation.

Fats are very important for brain activities.

Types of fatty acids:

1) Saturated fatty acids:

No double bond.

Examples are ghee, cheese, cream, butter, and coconut oil (plant
source).

2) Unsaturated fatty acids:

Presence of the double bond.

Come from plant sources and will be liquid at room temperature.

2.1) Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) - Where there is one double
bond.

Examples are olive oil, sesame oil, and avocado.

2.2) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) - More than one double bond.

Examples are almonds, walnuts, and fish (animal source).

3) Trans fatty acids:

Transfats are a type of unsaturated fatty acid which are industrially

hydrogenated to change to a solid form.

For example, vanaspati ghee, fried and processed food.

Transfats are very harmful to our health.

Saturated fatty acids when taken in excess can lead to deposition in the
blood.

MUFA and PUFA are healthier fats.

Saturated fats are good or bad depends upon the amount taken.

Question (02:40 PM):

A company marketing food products advertises that its items do not

contain trans-fats. What does this campaign signify to the customers?

1. The food products are not made out of hydrogenated oils.

2. The food products are not made out of animal fats/oils.

3. The oils used are not likely to damage the cardiovascular health of
the consumers.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1 and 3 only

d) 1, 2 and 3

The answer is c.

Micronutrients (03:02 PM):

Fig: Vitamin Types

Vitamins are needed in small quantities for the proper functioning of an

organism.

Water-soluble vitamins like vitamins B and C dissolve in water and have

to be replenished regularly.

Fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E, and K are stored with the fats
and don't need to be replenished regularly.

Water-soluble vitamins:

Vitamin B is also called B-complex.

B1 - Thiamine:

Sources - Milk, peanuts, and its deficiency disease is called berryberry.

B2 - Riboflavin:
Sources - Milk, banana, and its deficiency disease is called cheilosis
(development of cracks at the corner of the mouth).

B3 - Niacin:

Sources - Mushrooms, eggs, and its deficiency disease is called pellagra.

Pellagra also called 4D disease - Diarrhea, dermatitis (skin), dementia

(memory loss), and death.

B5 - Pantothenic Acid:

Sources - Soyabean, eggs, and its deficiency disease is fatigue or

weakness in the body.

B6 - Pyridoxine:

Sources - Milk, grains, and their deficiency can lead to nerve damage.

B7 - Biotin:

Sources - Oranges and strawberries, and their deficiency can lead to

hair loss.

B9 - Folic Acid:

Sources - Beetroots, dates, and their deficiency can lead to the

impaired nervous system of the fetus.

B12 - Cyanocobalamin:

Sources:

It is produced by the bacteria present in our intestines.

Other sources are meat and fish.

Disease - Pernicious anaemia.

It helps in the formation of hemoglobin.

Probiotic and prebiotic (02:27 PM):

Probiotic:

Good gut bacteria.

For example, fermented food.

Prebiotic:

Fiber is needed for feeding bacteria.

Helps in the growth of bacteria.

Examples are fiber-rich foods.

Vitamin C - Ascorbic Acid:

Sources - Citrous fruits.

Deficiency disease is scurvy and it can be seen in people with bleeding

in the gum and pain in the body.

Scurvy - Sailor's disease.

Fat-soluble vitamins:

Vitamin A - Retinol.

Sources - Milk, fish.

Deficiency disease - Night blindness.

Vitamin D - Calcipherol.
Sources - It is produced on exposure of skin to sunlight.

It is very important for the absorption of calcium.

Deficiency disease - Rickets.

Vitamin E - Tocopherol:

Sources - Pumpkins, vegetable oil, and its deficiency can lead to muscle
weakness.

Vitamin K - Phylloquinone:

Sources - Tomato and green leafy vegetables and it is needed for the
clotting of blood.

Deficiency - Increased clotting time.

Question (03:42 PM):

Which one of the following statements is NOT correct?

a) Milk contains none of the B vitamins.

b) Vitamin-A retinol deficiency leads to dry and scaly skin.

c) One of the symptoms of scurvy is pain in the joints.

d) Vitamin B and thiamine deficiency can lead to heart failure.

The answer is a

Antioxidants:

Oxidation reaction produces free radicals (highly reactive).

Antioxidants neutralize free radicals produced in the body.

The diet should include food that has more antioxidants such as vitamin
C and vitamin E.

CLASS 2
QUESTION-BASED ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:01 PM):

Which of the following elements are present in all the proteins?

1. Carbon

2. Hydrogen

3. Oxygen

4. Nitrogen

Select the code:

a) 2 and 3

b) 1, 2, and 4

c) 1, 3, and 4

d) 1, 2, 3, and 4

The answer is d.

MINERALS (01:03 PM):

Minerals are inorganic micronutrients that play a key role in ensuring health and well-being.

Macro Minerals:

a) Calcium:

Sources - milk and milk products.

Deficiency of calcium leads to weaker bones and bad muscle movement.

Example - Rickets.

b) Sodium and Chlorine:

Source - Common table salt.

Sodium is needed for the functioning of nerves and muscles.

Its deficiency will lead to weakness in the body and dehydration.

Its main function is to balance Fluid in the body.

c) Potassium:

Sources - most fruits and vegetables.

Its deficiency leads to muscle weakness.

d) Phosphorous:

Sources - pulses and milk.

Its deficiency leads to weaker teeth and bones.

e) Magnesium:

Source - nuts and seeds.

Its deficiency leads to poor muscle coordination.

f) Sulfur:

Source - onion and garlic.

Deficiency of sulfur leads to protein deficiency.

Micro Minerals:

a) Iron:

Sources - meat and spinach.

Deficiency disease - iron deficiency anaemia.

b) Fluorine:

Source - drinking water.

Its deficiency can cause increased tooth decay.

c) Copper:

Sources - Pulses and almonds.

Its deficiency causes a low White Blood Cell count.

d) Iodine:

Sources - salt.

Thyroid hormone goiter contains iron.

e) Zinc:

Sources - Meat and fish.

Its deficiency can lead to Diarrhoea.

CELLS BIOLOGY (01:26 PM):

The cell is a basic structural and functional unit of all known forms of life.

Types of Organisms:

Based on the number of cells:

a) Unicellular.

b) Multicellular.

Unicellular organisms:

They contain only a single cell that performs all the functions of life.

Examples - Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, and Bacteria.

Multicellular organisms:

They consist of more than one cell.

Examples - Insects, Human Body, and Plant Body.

Types of organisms based on organization within the cell:

Eukaryote

Prokaryote

Linear DNA in the form of chromosomes (rod-like structure).

Circular DNA

The chromosomes are present in the nucleus.

Circular DNA is present in a nucleoid region.

Membrane-bound cell organelle.

No membrane-bound cell Organelle

Examples - Plants, animals, amoeba, and fungi

Examples - Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.

Prokaryotes:

They are unicellular organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and cell organelle.

The genetic material DNA is circular and is present in the nucleoid region.

Examples - Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.

Eukaryotes:

They can be unicellular or multicellular organisms.

They have a membrane-bound nucleus and cell organelle.

The genetic material is linear and is organized in the form of rod-like structures called
chromosomes.

Examples are amoeba, Fungi, and Plants.

STRUCTURE OF THE CELL (01:48 PM):

Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane:

It separates the interior of all the cells from the outside environment.

It is made up of Phospholipids.

Cell Nucleus:

It is the controlling center of all the activities of a cell as it contains the genetic material of the
cell.

Cytoplasm:

It consists of all the components of the cell enclosed within the cell membrane other than the
nucleus.

Cell Wall:

It is the structural layer surrounding the cell membrane in certain types of cells to provide
additional support and protection.

All organisms that contain Cell walls - Plants, fungi, and bacteria.

The cell wall of plants is made up of Cellulose.

The cell wall of fungi is made up of Chitin.

The cell wall of bacteria is made up of Peptidoglycans.

Mitochondrion:

It is the site for energy production within the cell and it has its own DNA.

It is thus called the powerhouse of the cell.

Ribosomes:

Ribosomes are the sites for protein synthesis in the cell.

They can be present freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:
It is a large network of tubes that transport material between various parts of the cell.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

It contains attached ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes and is associated with the
manufacture of fats.

Lysosomes:

It has powerful digestive enzymes to break down any foreign material or worn-out cell
organelle.

It can even destroy the whole damaged cell (i.e.

It is thus called the suicide bag of the cell).

Golgi Body:

It packages and dispatches material to various targets inside and outside the cell.

Vacuole:

They are the storage structures of the cell.

It is present in the form of a single large structure in plant cells and multiple small structures in
animal cells.

Plastids:

They contain pigments of different colours and are found only in plant cells.

They contain their DNA and are of three types:

a) Chloroplast - green colour.

b) Chromoplast - different colours.

c) Leucoplast - white to colourless.

PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS (02:15 PM):

Fig: Animal Cell and Plant Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell

• No cell wall

• Cell wall

• Multiple small vacuoles

One large vacuole

• No plastids

• Plastid present

• Central position of the nucleus

• Peripheral nucleus

• Glycogen

• Starch

Question:
Which of the following statements are correct regarding the general difference between plant
and animal cells?

1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do not.

2. Plant cells do not have plasma membranes, unlike animal cells which do.

3. Mature plant cells have one large vacuole whilst animal cell has, many small vacuoles.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a) 1 and 2 only.

b) 2 and 3 only.

c) 1 and 3 only.

d) 1, 2, and 3.

The answer is c.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS (02:22 PM):

Five Kingdoms:

a) Monera:

Prokaryotes.

Unicellular.

Examples - Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.

b) Protista - Eukaryotes which are unicellular.

Examples - Amoeba, Euglena.

c) Fungi - Eukaryotes which are unicellular as well as multicellular.

Examples - Yeast, Mushroom.

d) Plants - Eukaryotes which are multicellular.

Examples - ferns, sunflowers.

e) Animals - Eukaryotes which are multicellular.

Examples - Jellyfish and tigers.

VIRUS (02:28 PM):

Viruses are acellular agents that can grow and replicate only inside the living cells of another
organism.

It can infect bacteria or other microorganisms, plants, and animals.

They have their own genetic material and proteins but they lack the enzymes needed for
energy production.

HEALTH (02:51 PM):

Health is complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease.

Diseases:

a) Congenital disease.

b) Acquired diseases.

Congenital diseases:

It is any abnormality in the structure or function of a person that is present right from the time
of birth.

Examples - Down syndrome and haemophilia.

Acquired Diseases:

Any disease that is not present at the time of birth but develops at a later stage of the life of an
organism.

Types:

a) Communicable/Infectious Diseases.
b) Non-communicable/Non-infectious Diseases.

Communicable/Infectious Diseases:

They occur because of disease-causing organisms called pathogens.

Examples - Covid-19, Tuberculosis.

Non-communicable/Non-infectious Diseases:

They are not caused by pathogens but by lifestyle and environmental factors.

Examples:

Cancer.

Healthcare:

i) Preventive:

Examples include vaccines, hygiene habits, a balanced diet, physical activity, substance abuse,
awareness, yoga, and meditation.

Curative healthcare:

Examples include medicines, surgeries, and therapy.

Non-communicable diseases:

Responsible for 70% of deaths globally.

Examples:

Cardiovascular Disease - Disease of the heart - high blood pressure/Hypertension.

Respiratory Diseases - Asthma.

Deficiency Diseases - Anaemia.

Mental Diseases - Clinical depression.

Environmental Diseases - Minamata disease (mercury).

Occupational Diseases - Siliocosis (Silica).

Cancer.
Communicable diseases (03:39 PM):

Air - Tuberculosis.

Water - Cholera.

Food - Amoebiasis.

Soil - Hookworm infection.

Blood and Body fluids - AIDS.

Direct Contact - Chicken Pox, Covid-19 infection.

Fomite - When the transmission is through non-living things - Chicken Pox, Common Cold, and
tetanus.

Zoonotic - When you get a disease from a bird or animal - Nippah Virus, Rabies, Swine Flu, Bird
Flu.

Vector - When we get a disease from mosquito - Malaria, Dengue.

Vector (03:49 PM):

Vector is a carrier.

Vectors are organisms that do not cause the disease but spread infection by taking pathogens
from one organism to another.

Types:

Mechanical Vector - Mechanical vectors carry pathogens on the surface of their bodies.

Biological Vector - Biological vectors carry pathogens within their bodies.

Question:

Which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy.

2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium.

3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

a) 1 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1 and 3 only

d) 1, 2, and 3

The answer is a.

Kindly refer to chapter 5th of the class 9th NCERT.

CLASS 3
QUESTION BASED

ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (09:01 AM):

Consider the following:

1) Bacteria

2) Fungi

3) Virus

Which of the above can be cultured in an artificial/synthetic medium?

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1 and 3 only

d) 1, 2, and 3

The answer is a.

DISEASES (09:05 AM):

Communicable Diseases:
1) Based on pathogens:

1.1) Bacterial diseases.

1.2) Viral diseases.

1.3) Fungal diseases.

1.4) Protozoan.

1.5) Helminthic diseases.

Bacterial Diseases:

Tuberculosis.

Leprosy.

Typhoid.

Tetanus.

Cholera.

Anthrax.

Bacteria belong to the kingdom monera (unicellular prokaryotes).

Tuberculosis:

The pathogen involved that causes this disease is Mycobacterium Tuberculosis.

Modes of transmission - Air - coughing, sneezing, and droplet infection.

The main organ of the body that is affected is the Lungs - Pulmonary Tuberculosis.

Sometimes it can affect other organs as well - Intestine, Brain, and bones - in this case, we call it
Extra-Pulmonary Tuberculosis.

Symptoms

of Pulmonary Tuberculosis:

Persistent cough for more than 15 days, afternoon fever, weight loss, blood-stained sputum,
etc.

Management of Bacterial Diseases:

Antibiotics - medicine for bacterial diseases.

Detailed drug therapy is supposed to be followed in this case prescribed by the doctor.

Discussion on the dosage, frequency, and duration for which you have to take the medicine.

If this is not followed completely, then a problem of Antibiotic Resistance (AR) can develop.

Sources

through which Antibiotic Resistance can develop:

a) It can happen naturally if bacteria change over time.

b) It can happen through misuse of drug therapy (i.e. overuse of medicine, underuse of
medicine, and self-medication).

c) Food - animal-based food is mostly having antibiotics.

d) Water - Pollution/contamination.

Treatment:

First-line drugs - Rifampicin.

Second-line medicine - Stronger medicines, more side effects, expensive, and less availability.

Third-line drugs - Endpoint (i.e. after this no more advanced medicines are available).

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) (09:37 AM):

Bacteria - Antibiotic.

Virus - Anti-viral.

Fungi - Anti-fungal.

WHO - AMR is top ten global health threats.

AMR is the ability of a microorganism like bacteria, virus, and fungus to stop an antimicrobial
agent like antibiotic, antiviral, or antifungal from working against it.

It can occur naturally or via misuse of drug therapies.

Standard treatments become ineffective, infection persists, and may spread to others.
Question:

Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial
pathogens in India?

1. Genetic predisposition of some people.

2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases.

3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming.

4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people.

Select the correct answer using the code given:

a) 1 and 2

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1, 3, and 4

d) 2, 3, and 4

The answer is b.

Protozoan Diseases:

Kingdom Protista, unicellular, and eukaryotes.

i) Amoebiasis.

ii) Giardiasis.

iii) Malaria.

Malaria:

The pathogen causing malaria is Plasmodium (i.e. plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium
falciparum).

Vector - The plasmodium can be transferred only through the female Anopheles mosquito.

Reproduction:

Asexual reproduction is happening within a single parent.

Sexual reproduction is one where two parents are involved, male and female.
Reproduction of Plasmodium

It can be Asexual (the human being is the host for asexual reproduction) as well as Sexual (the
mosquito is the host).

Intermediate Host:

It is the organism where asexual reproduction of the pathogen takes place.

Human beings are the intermediate host for Plasmodium.

Definitive Host:

It is the organism where the sexual reproduction of the pathogen takes place.

Mosquito is the definitive host for Plasmodium.

Malaria Transmission Cycle (10:03 AM):

Fig: Malaria Transmission Cycle

Description of the Diagram:

Female anopheles mosquito carrying plasmodium - this is a biological vector.

This mosquito will bite the person, during this bite, the mosquito deposits plasmodium in the
blood of the person.

The first place where your blood will take this plasmodium is the liver where it will become
active.

Plasmodium will enter Red Blood cells where plasmodium reproduces asexually in the RBCs.

Plasmodium number increases and this increase is so large that RBC cannot accommodate
these large numbers and they start bursting/breaking down.

Now plasmodium enters the RBCs.

Now the second female anopheles mosquito will pick up plasmodium while biting and if this
mosquito bites any other person, then that person will be affected.
Thus, this cycle goes on.

For the treatment of malaria, we have anti-malarial medicines.

Fungal Disease (10:11 AM):

Kingdom fungi.

Candidiasis - Candida albicans.

Ringworm.

Athlete’s foot.

Treatment - Anti-fungal medicines.

WHO came up with the list of priority fungal pathogens and it highlighted that globally fungal
diseases are increasing due to global warming.

Helminthic Disease:

Ascariasis.

Lymphatic filariasis.

Hookworm infection.

These belong to the animal kingdom.

Flatworm + Roundworms - Heminthic.

Viral Diseases (10:26 AM):

Hepatitis.

Chicken pox.

Polio.

Dengue.

Zika.

Chikungunya.

AIDS.
Hepatitis:

Hepatitis - Hepatic + Itis.

Hepatic means liver and Itis means inflammation (i.e. redness, swelling, pain, loss of function,
and increased temperature).

It causes inflammation of the liver.

Pathogen - Hepatitis Virus.

Types:

Hepatitis A - This happens through Food and water contamination and it is the m

ost common type of Hepatitis infection

(i.e. jaundice).

Hepatitis B - Happens through body fluid and blood.

Hepatitis C - Happens through blood and body fluid but majority through blood.

Hepatitis D - Happens through only with Hepatitis B.

Hepatitis E - This happens through contaminated food and water (less common).

No vaccine for Hepatitis C till now.

Question (10:37 AM):

Match the list- 1 (diseases) with List- 2 (type of diseases) and select the code:

List 1 List 2

A. Haemophilia 1. Deficiency disease

B. Diabetes 2. Genetic disease

C. Rickets 3. Hormonal disease

D. Ringworm 4. Fungal disease

a) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1

b) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4

c) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4

d) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1

The answer is b.

IMMUNITY (10:58 AM):

It is a balanced state of an organism having adequate defenses to fight infection and other
unwanted attacks.

Types:

a) Innate Immunity.

b) Acquired/Adaptive Immunity.

Innate Immunity:

It is the non-specific immune response that is activated immediately upon exposure of the body
to an unwanted agent.

It forms the first line of defense of the body.

Examples:

Physical barriers like skin, and mucous membranes (present on the organs).

Chemical barriers - Tears, saliva, HCL (stomach).

Cellular defenses - Neutrophils and Monocytes (both are types of White Blood Cells).

Acquired/Adaptive Immunity:

It is the specific immune response that is developed by the body against an unwanted agent
upon exposure of the body to that agent.

It is slower than innate immunity.

Lymphocytes (WBCs) - Two Types:

All blood cells of the body form in the bone marrow.

i) B-Cells - Provide antibody-mediated immune response.

ii) T-Cells - Provide cell-mediated immune response.

Antigen-Antibody:

Antibody-mediated immune response:

B-cells (

B-Lymphocytes )

provide this response through the production of specific antibodies.

Antigen is any agent that triggers an immune response.

Antibody is the specific protein produced as a response to destroy the antigen.

Cell-mediated immune response:

T-cells

provide this response through the process of phagocytosis.

In phagocytosis, a cell uses its cell membrane to cover a large particle and then break it down.

T-cells (

T-lymphocytes)

like all other blood cells are formed in the bone marrow but from there, they go to the thymus
gland for maturation.

Adaptive/Acquired Immunity (11:30 AM):

i) Active immunity - When the body produces antibodies.

ii) Passive immunity - When antibody comes from outside.

Active immunity:

Active immunity is the immune response where antibodies against a specific antigen are
produced by the immune system of the person.

Examples:
Natural - Infection.

Artificial - Through vaccination.

Passive immunity:

It is the immune response where antibodies against a specific antigen are administered from
outside the body of the person.

Examples:

Natural - Mother's milk.

Artificial - Monoclonal antibodies, antisnake venom, plasma therapy (liquid part of the blood),

VACCINATION (11:47 AM):

It is a process by which a person is made immune or resistant to an infection by stimulating the

body's own immune system.

When the body encounters an antigen for the first time, a slow and low-intensity production of
antibodies is observed.

The B-Cells however remain sensitized and an Immunological Memory is created.

On subsequent attacks by the same Antigen, this memory is triggered and a fast and high-
intensity immune response is observed.

This is the basis of the working of vaccines.

Kindly refer to NCERT of Class 8 - Chapter 2 and NCERT of Class 12 - Chapter 8.

CLASS 4
QUESTION-BASED ON THE PREVIOUS LECTURE (01:01 PM):

Which of the following statements is not correct?

(a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.

(b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.

(c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses is several times more
than those infected with HIV.

(d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many
years.

The answer is b.

VACCINATION (01:06 PM):

B-cells start producing antibodies against antigens that enter the body.

It is a slow and low-intense response.

B-cells develop Immunological Memory against these Antigens.

Types of Vaccines:

1) Live Attenuated Vaccine:

The pathogen is alive but is weakened so that it doesn't cause the disease but retains its
capacity to grow.

For example, oral polio vaccine and BCG (vaccine for TB).

2) Inactivated killed:

The pathogen is killed but the proteins and other structures present are still able to create an
immune response.

For example, injectable polio and Covaxin for Covid-19.

3) Sub-unit vaccine:

It uses certain specific parts of a pathogen that can act as an antigen to create an immune
response.

For example, whooping cough vaccine.

4) Conjugate vaccine:

It uses two specific parts of a pathogen like a protein and a polysaccharide together.
For example, pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.

Question:

Widespread resistance of malarial parasites to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to
develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria
vaccine?

(a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium.

(b) Man does not develop, immunity to malaria during natural infection.

(c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria.

(d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host.

The answer is b.

Acquired Immunity (01:35 PM):

Two types:

a) Active immunity:

Active immunity is an immune response in which antibodies against a particular antigen are
produced by the body of the person.

Examples:

Natural active immunity.

Artificial active immunity (Antigen from outside).

b) Passive immunity:

It is an immune response in which Antibodies against a particular Antigen are administered

from outside the body of the person.

Examples:

Artificial passive-acquired immunity (monoclonal antibodies).

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (01:37 PM):

Fig: Digestive System

The digestive system breaks down the food into a simpler form through different digestive
enzymes.

Mouth - chew food and mix it with saliva.

Salivary gland: Produce saliva called Amylase.

Carbohydrates will break down here.

The function of the esophagus is to transport material from the mouth to the stomach.

Stomach - Hydrochloric acid and Protease.

Muscle bands - Sphincters.

Pancreas - Protease (for protein), Lipase (for fat), and Amylase (for carbohydrates).

The pancreas produces the enzymes that digest Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats.

Liver - Bile juice (Helps in fat digestion).

Bile is stored in Gall Blader.

The liver has no fat digestive enzymes.

Small intestine - the longest part of the digestive system.

Small intestine - Sucrase, Maltase, Lactase, and Peptidase.

Digestion/breakdown of nutrients is complete.

Nutrients are absorbed into the blood.

Large intestine:

The undigested waste and water come into the large intestine.

Through the anus, the undigested waste comes out of it.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (02:03 PM):

Respiration is a process of energy production in the body.

Two steps:

1) Cellular Respiration means the respiration that will take place in the cell.

2)

Gaseous exchange.

Cellular Respiration:

Aerobic Glucose - Reaction in which oxygen is involved.

Glucose + Oxygen = CO2 + H2O + energy

Anaerobic Respiration:

Some organisms that always have energy production without oxygen.

Example - Fermentation is involved in baking and brewing.

In case of insufficient Oxygen (takes place in muscle cells in case of emergency):

Glucose = Lactic acid + energy.

Fig: Respiratory System

Alveoli - an area where the actual exchange of gases will take place.

Alveoli have a very rich blood supply and it is SAC of air.

Air

Blood

Oxygen (from air to blood)

This oxygen Will be sucked with the help of Haemoglobin and this hemoglobin has a very high
affinity for oxygen.
CO2 (from blood to air)

The job of the diaphragm - provide force for inhaling and exhaling.

The diaphragm is a large muscle.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM (02:45 PM):

Excretion is for waste removal and regulation of water.

Fig: Excretory System

The excretory system removes waste from the body through organs like kidneys, filtering blood
and producing urine.

Urine - Urea (2.5%), other waste (2.5%), and water (95%).

Kidney stone's composition - Calcium oxalate.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM (02:56 PM):

System of transportation (blood, blood vessels, and heart).

The upper chambers are called Artium and Auricles.

Lower chambers are called ventricles.

Fig: Double Circulation in our Heart

Blood vessels:

Artery:

Deep-seated.
Reddish.

Thick-walled.

Takes blood away from the heart.

Veins:

Superficial.

Bluish-green.

Thin-walled.

Bringing blood toward the heart.

The upper chamber will receive the blood and the lower chamber will leave blood.

The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood, while the right side of the heart receives
deoxygenated blood.

Arteries always carry oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery.

Veins always carry deoxygenated blood except for the pulmonary vein.

BLOOD (03:14 PM):

Iron in haemoglobin gives a red colour to the blood.

Two parts:

1) Plasma - liquid part.

Plasma is a yellowish liquid.

It contains a special protein called plasma protein.

Three proteins:

Globulin - is for the defense of the body.

Albumin - is for maintaining the pressure of the blood.

Fibrinogen - is for clotting of the blood.

2) Cells:

2.1) Red blood cells are also called Erythrocytes.

They contain haemoglobin which helps in the transport of oxygen to all parts of the body.

2.2) Platelets are also called Thrombocytes.

Platelets initiate the process of clotting of blood.

2.3) White blood cells (WBCs) are also called leukocytes.

WBCs provide immunity to the body.

Types of WBCs:

1) Agranulocytes :

They do not have granules in their cytoplasm.

1.1) Monocytes - they are for innate immunity.

1.2) Lymphocytes - are for acquired or adaptive immunity.

Examples - B-cells are for antibody immune response.

T-cells are for cell-mediated immune response.

2) Granulocytes:

They contain granules in their cytoplasm.

2.1) Neutrophils - for innate immunity.

2.2) Basophils - are involved in inflammation.

2.3) Eosinophils - for allergic reactions.

BLOOD GROUPS (03:30 PM):

ABO types - A, B, AB, and O.

Rh types - Positive and Negative.

Fig: Blood Groups

Types of Antigen:

If Antigen A is present, then it is blood group A.

If Antigen B is present, then it is blood group B.

If Antigen AB is present, then it is blood group AB.

If no Antigen is present, then it is blood group O

Antigen Blood Group Antibody

A A

Anti - B

B B

Anti - A

AB AB None

None O

Anti - A

Anti - B

Blood transfusion:

Donor - Antigens.

Recipient - Antibody.

Donor blood has antigens - the recipient's body will recognize - the body of the recipient will
produce antibodies.
Rh Types:

Antigen Antibody

Positive Rh Absent

Negative Absent Anti-Rh

Question:

A man whose blood group is not known meets with a serious accident and needs a blood
transfusion immediately. Which one of the blood groups mentioned below and readily available
in the hospital will be safe for transfusion?

(a) O, Rh–

(b) O, Rh+

(c) AB, Rh–

(d) AB, Rh+

The answer is a.

Kindly refer to chapters 2, 6, and 7th of the class 7th NCERT.

CLASS 5
BRIEF OVERVIEW [09:02 AM]

GLANDS [09:03 AM]

Types - exocrine and endocrine glands.

The endocrine and exocrine glands differ in:

Exocrine glands - secretes the substances through ducts.

Endocrine glands - do not have ducts and secrete the substances directly into the blood.

Endocrine system - it is meant for internal communication and regulation of the human body.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM [09:06 AM]

It is meant for internal communication and regulation of the human body.

Hormones are the secretions of endocrine glands that do not have ducts and secrete directly
into the blood to be transported to distantly located target organs.

HYPOTHALAMUS [09:09 AM]

Releasing hormone: It stimulates the pituitary gland to release its hormones.

Inhibiting hormone: It stops the secretions of hormones from the pituitary gland.

Anterior pituitary Gland:

1. Thyroid Stimulating gland:

It stimulates the thyroid gland to produce its hormone.

2. Prolactin:

This is for the formation of milk.

3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone:

It stimulates the adrenal gland to release its secretions.

4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone:

It helps in the formation of sperm and the development of eggs.

5. Growth Hormone:

It helps in the growth and development of the body.

6. Luteinizing Hormone:

This is also linked to our reproductive system.

It stimulates the sex organs to produce sex hormones.

Comparison [09:23 AM]

Males

Females

Testes Ovaries
Sperm Egg/Ovum (FSH)

Testosterone Estrogen, Progestrone (LH)

Posterior Pituitary Gland:

1. Anti-Diuretic Hromone(ADH) or Vasopressin:

It helps in the reabsorption of water and minerals from the kidneys back into the blood.

Diabetes insipidus: This disease is caused due to less ADH secretion.

2. Oxytocin:

It is released during childbirth.

THYROID GLAND [09:36 AM]

It helps in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Hypothyroidism:

This happens when the thyroid gland doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone.

Hyperthyroidism:

This is when the thyroid makes too much thyroid hormone.

PARATHYROID GLAND:

Parathyroid hormone:

It helps in the metabolism of calcium and phosphate in the body.

ADRENAL GLAND [09:41 AM]

Adrenal medulla (Central) - Adrenaline and Noradrenaline - are the emergency hormones of the
body that are released during times of fear, being frightened, anxious, excited, or scared.

Adrenal Cortex (outer) - Mineralocorticoids (this regulates the balance of water and minerals
thus maintaining the blood pressure) and Glucocorticoids (aka cortisol, this is for carbohydrate
metabolism).
Adrenaline and noradrenaline:

They are the emergency hormones of the body that are produced in situations of fear, being
frightened, anxious, or overexcited.

Aldosterone or Mineralocorticoid:

It regulates the balance of water and minerals to maintain blood pressure.

Glucocorticoid or cortisol:

This is for carbohydrate metabolism.

PANCREAS [09:48 AM]

Insulin decreases blood glucose levels.

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels

It is a mixed gland because it has parts that are endocrine as well as exocrine

Insulin:

It reduces blood glucose levels.

Glucagon:

It increases blood glucose levels.

Diabetes:

Diabetes Mellitus is a condition where the body has trouble regulating blood sugar levels due to
problems with insulin production or use.

This can lead to high blood sugar levels and is commonly managed through diet, exercise, and
sometimes medication.

MCQ Practise:

Thyroid: TSH

Gonads: LH

Adrenals: ACTH
Parathyroid can work independently.

GENETICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY [09:59 AM]

Genetics:

It is the study of genetic material and its inheritance from one generation to the next.

Biotechnology:

It uses living organisms, their processes, or systems to manufacture products or technology

intended to improve the quality of human life.

It uses genetic engineering which is a process of altering the genetic material.

Nucleic Acid:

It is a large molecule that forms the genetic material of all life forms.

It is responsible for the transfer of characters from parents to offspring.

It is made up of:

A. phosphate group,

B. pentose sugar,

C. nitrogenous bases

i. Purine- adenine and guanine

ii. Pyrimidine- uracil, cytosine, thymine.

D. Nucleoside: pentose sugar and nitrogenous bases.

E. Nucleotide: Pentose sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate group.

TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID [10:17 AM]

It is of 2 types: DNA and RNA

RNA
DNA

It stands for ribose nucleic acid.

It stands for Deoxyribose nucleic acid.

Ribose sugar Deoxyribose sugar

Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil

Adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine

Single-stranded Double-stranded

Structure of DNA:

The 2 strands of DNA are made up of a sugar, phosphate backbone.

The nitrogenous bases present on the strands join using complementary base pairing where
adenine joins to thymine by a double bond and guanine joins to cytosine through a triple bond.

The whole structure then twists into a spiral arrangement called the double helix DNA.

Gene Expression:

Segments of DNA tell the individual cells how to produce specific proteins.

These segments are called genes.

It is the presence or absence of specific proteins that give an organism its trait or characteristic.

Transcription of the DNA segment or gene takes place in the nucleus to form messenger RNA.

Translation of this messenger RNA into specific proteins takes place in the ribosomes present in
the cytoplasm.

GENE EXPRESSION IN VIRUS [11:04 AM]

Virus based on the genetic material:

1. DNA Virus:

Transcription: DNA to RNA

Translation: RNA to protein

Chickenpox virus, adenovirus.

2. RNA Virus:

a. Non-retrovirus:

RNA --> protein

For example, Dengue virus, Covid 19 virus

b. Retrovirus:

RNA --> DNA

Reverse transcription

For example,

AIDS

VACCINES [11:11 AM]

Nucleic acid

DNA Vaccines:

It works by introducing the DNA segment coding for the disease-specific antigen.

The production of target antigen takes place in the body of the vaccinated person.

Eg. Zycov-D.

mRNA Vaccine:

It works by introducing the mRNA segment which has the information for the disease-specific
antigen.
Eg. Pfizer and Moderna brought the mRNA vaccine.

Gene Silencing:

[11:23 AM]

It is the interruption or suppression of the expression of a gene at a transcriptional or

translational level.

Post-transcriptional gene silencing technology:

It inhibits protein synthesis in the target cells by using double-stranded RNA interference.

This iRNA targets the mRNA produced in transcription to prevent the production of proteins.

For example, Flavr Savr Tomato.

GENOME AND GENOME SEQUENCING [11:33 AM]

Genome:

It is an organism's complete set of DNA which includes all the chromosomes with all the genes.

Genome Sequencing:

It contains the process of describing the exact order of nitrogenous base pairs in an individual.

This data can be analyzed to understand the function of various genes and identify changes.

INHERITANCE [11:46 AM]

Egg from mother

Sperm from father

Both fertilize to form a zygote.

This zygote grows into an embryo.

Zygote --> Embryo --> Baby.

Invitro Fertilization:
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is a process that helps people have babies when they have trouble
getting pregnant.

Eggs and Sperm: Doctors take eggs from a woman’s body and sperm from a man.

Mixing: They combine the eggs and sperm in a special dish to help them join together
(fertilization).

Embryos: If the eggs get fertilized, they grow into tiny embryos.

Implanting: One or more of these embryos are then placed into the woman’s uterus (womb),
hoping that one will grow into a baby.

Test-tube baby: Assistance during the fertilization phase. Rest is normal.

We get to choose the uterus. The transplantation can be done in the biological mother.

Biological parents: The ones who give the sperm and egg.

Homework: NCERT Class 8th- Chapter 6,7.

CLASS 6
REVISION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:02 PM)

INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS (01:09 PM)

HAPLOID CELL:

It contains a single set of unpaired Chromosomes represented as

n.

Gametes like eggs and sperm are Haploid.

Diploid Cell:
It contains two sets of Chromosomes represented by 2n.

Somatic cells, which are all the cells other than the Gametes are Diploid.

Homologous pairs of Chromosomes:

They are similar in length, structure, and Gene Position, one coming from the father and one
coming from the mother.

Gregor's Mendel Experiment:

All the characters in an organism are manifested in two factors.

These factors or genes are the units of inheritance.

The dominant trait is the one which overrides the impact of the impact of the other trait.

The recessive trait is one that cannot express in the presence of a dominant trait.

For example, for garden peas, the Green colour of the pod is dominant over the yellow colour
of the pod.

Homozygous:

When both genes are the same.

For example- GG

Heterozygous:

It means when both genes are different.

For example- GY

Phenotype:

It is the observable characteristics of the organism.

For Example, the colour of the pod, height, etc.

Genotype:

It is a Genetic combination.

BLOOD GROUP INHERITANCE (01:47 PM)

Blood Group Phenotype Genotype

Blood group A Phenotype A Genotype AA, AO

Blood group B Phenotype B Genotype BB, BO

Blood group O Phenotype O Genotype OO

Blood group AB Phenotype AB Genotype AB- Co-dominance [when both genes express
themselves together]

SEX DETERMINATION (02:03 PM)

22 pairs of chromosomes- Autosomes

1 pair of the chromosome is the sex chromosome (2 chromosome)

XY-Male

XX- female

So there is a 50% chance of having a son and a 50% chance of having a daughter.

1) Abnormality in the number of Chromosome

Klinefelter's syndrome- XXY:

This is a male with the development of feminine Characteristics. Total chromosomes= 47.

Turners syndrome- X0:

Sterile female (Improper female reproductive system). Total chromosomes= 45.

Down's syndrome:

The presence of an extra chromosome on chromosome number 21- Trisomy of 21. Total
chromosomes= 47.

Characteristics:
Very small head and partially open mouth and mental retardness.

There is no treatment for these abnormalities.

Only the mother can know in advance and prefers to have the child or not.

2) Gene defects:

Autosomal gene defect

Sickle cell anemia:

Deficiency of Hemoglobin

Hb Hb: Normal gene .

Hbs Hbs: Defective gene- a person is suffering from sickle cell anemia.

Hb Hbs- The defective gene is recessive and the normal gene is dominant [in most of the cases]-
Normal gene. This will act as a Carrier.

Hb Hbs Mates with Hb Hbs

If the carrier person is mating with another carrier person then the chances of the defective
gene are high.

This can be seen in the Excessive In-breeding condition, mostly in the European royal families.

SEX LINKED DISEASE (02:45 PM)

These are mostly X-linked disease

Examples- Haemophilia [it is also called Royal disease, related to blood clotting],

Colour blindness [not able to differentiate between the primary colour]

X: Normal (Dominant)

Xh: Defective (Recessive)

XX, XY- Normal male or female.

XhXh - Defective female/ Disease

XhY- Defective male.

XhX- Normal female but she will act as carrier female.

RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY (03:01 PM)

Steps:

Step 1:

Isolation of the desired gene

Step 2:

Enzymes to cut at a specific location- DNA cutting enzymes- Nuclease [Restriction nucleases,
endonucleases]

Step 3:

Vector DNA- to carry and hold the desired Gene- For ease, We use the Bacteria i.e Plasmid
[Plasmid is small independent circular DNA present in bacteria and Viruses]

Step 4:

DNA Joining Enzyme- The Joining enzymes are called ligases.

Step 5:

The Desired Gene joins Vector DNA to give Recombinant DNA.

Step 6:

Recombinant DNA is inserted back to get the desired result.

VIRAL VECTOR VACCINE (03:15 PM)

Sputnik V and covishield- Viral vector

Covishield vaccine [Serum institute got the license to produce]

The gene coding for COVID-19:

Antigen + Adenovirus (Chimpanzee) = Adenovirus with gene coding for COVID-19 antigen.

* Vector in this case is Adenovirus. [Adenovirus does not create any kind of response in the
human body.

It was taken from Chimpanzee.

The desired gene was taken from the Covid-19 virus.

Adenovirus will be changed to live attenuated.

GENE EDITING (03:28 PM)

CRISPR- Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats.

It is a Gene Editing tool.

It has two Components:

a) Guide molecule- Single Guided RNA [gRNA]:

It is a double-stranded RNA

b) DNA cutting enzyme- cas9 protein [Nucleases]:

These are also called Molecular Scissors.

Single-guided RNA guides CRISPR to specific parts of the Genome and CaS 9 protein cuts DNA at
that specific site.

This allows gene editing.

TWINS (03:48 PM)

Identical twins and non-identical twins.

Identical twins:
When the egg and sperm fuse together then zygote forms.

When the zygote goes for division then it will result in identical twins

They can be considered Natural clones.

Non-identical twins:

When two eggs are released and they fuse with two sperms then the two separate zygotes will
be formed.

These non-identical twins are no more alike than any other 2 siblings.

Non-identical twins are more common.

The babies may be of the same sex or different sexes.

CLASS 7
QUESTION-BASED ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (09:02 AM):

ANIMAL CLONING (09:05 AM):

We need a somatic cell to start the process of cloning.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer - Egg with the somatic cell nucleus.

This will be stimulated to form the embryo.

Once the embryo is formed, it will be transplanted into the uterus - Clone baby.

Significance:

To prevent the extinction of specific species.

Fig: The mechanism of cloning.

THREE-PARENT BABY (09:21 AM):

Mitochondria has its own DNA called mitochondrial DNA or mt DNA.

Defective mt DNA - Leigh's Disease.

Mitochondria DNA is inherited only from the mother.

In order to avoid or rectify this problem, we will perform mitochondrial replacement or

mitochondrial donation.

Process of enucleation - removal of nucleus.

Mitochondrial replacement involves these steps:

A donor egg with healthy mitochondria and an egg from the biological mother are collected.

The nucleus of the donor egg is removed, leaving behind the cytoplasm with healthy
mitochondria.

The nucleus from the mother's egg is then inserted into the donor egg.

The reconstructed egg is fertilized with the father's sperm.

The fertilized egg develops into an embryo with the mother's nuclear DNA and the donor's
mitochondrial DNA.

The embryo is implanted into the mother's uterus, leading to pregnancy.

Unfertilized egg - Maternal spindle transfer.

Fertilized egg/Zygote - Pronuclear transfer.

STEM CELLS (09:40 AM):

Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can divide and grow into different types of cells.

Types of stem cells:

1) Embryonic stem cells:

Embryonic stem cells are present at the early stages of life and they can form all types of cells
of the body.

They form all types of cells in the body.

2) Adult stem cells:

These are tissue-specific.

Adult stem cells are present in different tissues and can produce new cells specific to that
tissue.

For example, stem cells are present in the bone marrow, skin, or brain.

3) Induced pluripotent stem cells:

Normal differentiated cells (i.e. muscle cells) - induced - stem cells - All types of cells in the
body.

Totipotent = All types of cells + Extra embryonic tissue (Placenta).

For example, Zygote.

Pluripotent = All types of cells (i.e. iPSC).

Multipotent = Some types of cells (i.e. cells of bone marrow).

Unipotent - One type of cell (i.e. liver stem cells).

Induced pluripotent stem cells are normal differentiated cells that can be induced to divide and
become stem cells.

Fig: Degenerative diseases of different tissues/organs amenable to cell therapies

Benefits of Stem Cells:

No risk of rejection or minimum risk.

Application - regenerative medicines.

BIOTECHNOLOGY (10:29 AM):

Blue biotechnology - Marine.

Green biotechnology - Agriculture (i.e. GM crops).

Red biotechnology - Medical (i.e. biopharma).

White biotechnology - Industrial (i.e. biofertilizers)

Grey biotechnology - Environment.

Bioremediation (i.e. oil zapper - Group of digestive bacteria).

BIOE3 - Biotechnology for economy, environment, and employment.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) - These are organisms in which the genetic material has
been altered in a way that doesn't occur through natural recombinations.

Genetically modified crops (GM crops) benefits:

High yield - GM mustard.

High shelf life - FLAVR SAVR tomato.

Disease resistance - GM potato (blight).

Climate resilience - GM rubber.

Pest resistance - BT cotton, BT brinjal.

Higher nutrition - Golden rice (Vitamin A).

Concerns around GM crops (10:45 AM):

1) Health - Food crops.

2) Economic - Costly.

Terminal seed technology - Seeds don't grow further.

3) Environment - Abiotic factors (soil, water, etc.) and biotic factors (living things).

4) Biodiversity.
Regulation - Ministry of Science and Technology - Department of Biotechnology - GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Appraisal Committee).

GM mustard - High-yielding variety + Genes from soil bacteria.

Overall challenges to the growth of biotechnology (11:05 AM):

1) Financial crunch.

2) Lack of manpower, and infrastructure.

3) Lack of R&D.

4) Gap between lab and industry.

5) Regulatory issues.

6) Ethical issues of biotechnology:

Destruction of living cells.

Against the laws of nature.

Example - Designer babies and bioweapons.

Biopiracy.

Kindly refer to the below-mentioned chapters of NCERTs:

NCERT - Class 6th - Chapters 2 and 3.

Class 7th - Chapters 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8th.

Class 8th - Chapters 2, 6, and 7.

Class 9 - Chapter 5.

Class 10th - Chapters 5, 7, and 8.

Class 11th - Chapters 9, 15, and 19.

Class 12th - Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Question (11:36 AM):

What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials?
Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized.
Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization. (10Marks/150 words)

Life material - Biotechnology - Capital, global competition, technology/research,

regulators/approval, and industrial gap with lab.

Sources:

Current affairs, Yojana, and Kurukshetra magazine.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

CLASS 1
OVERVIEW OF THE SUBJECT: (01:04 PM)

The 11th NCERT Chapter 11 Natural Hazards and Disasters is important.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT (01:23 PM)

The word disaster comes from the French word "Disastre"

Hazard Vs Disaster:

Hazard Disaster

A hazard is an event that has the potential to cause injury loss of life or damage to
property/environment. It is an event that occurs suddenly or unexpectedly in most cases
and disrupts the normal course of life in the affected area.
Hazards can lead to disaster. A disaster is an event that causes significant harm, including loss
of life, injuries, and damage to property and the environment.

Hazards come with warnings. Ignoring warnings can lead to disasters.

Hazards may be inevitable. Disasters can be prevented.

Hazards occur in less populated areas. Disasters occur in overpopulated areas.

The impact of a disaster is determined by the extent of a community's vulnerability to the

hazard.

Classification of Hazards/Disasters:

Natural Hazards/Disasters

Examples: Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, etc.

Man-made Disasters

These occur due to human negligence.

Types of Natural Hazards/Disasters (01:48 PM)

Climatological or Atmospheric Disasters

Examples: Tropical cyclones, heatwaves, cold waves, thunderstorms, etc.

Geological or Terrestrial Disasters

Examples: Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions.

Hydrological or Aquatic Disasters

Examples: Floods, tsunamis, and storm surges.

Biological Disasters

Example: COVID-19.

Hazard Assessment (01:55 PM)

Hazard disaster management involves assessing the type, location, and extent of hazards. It
includes:
Scope and Intensity: Evaluating the damage potential and probability of occurrence.

Tools for Hazard Analysis:

Hazard Mapping: Provides a spatial overview and sketch of areas vulnerable to various hazards.

Historical Profile or Timeline: Offers insights into past hazards, their changes in nature,
intensity, and behavior.

Seasonal Calendar: Marks the occurrence of hazards throughout the annual cycle.

Hazard Metrics: Assesses future hazards based on gaps in past hazard and disaster
management.

Vulnerability and Capacity (02:11 PM)

Vulnerability refers to conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental

factors that increase a community’s susceptibility to hazards. Simply put, it is the extent to
which a community is affected by a disaster.

Capacity refers to the knowledge, skills, resources, and abilities available to individuals,
households, and communities that enable them to prevent, prepare for, withstand, survive, and
recover from disasters.

Capacity is inversely proportional to vulnerability.

Examples of Capacity:

Permanent housing

Adequate food supply

Strong community leadership

Types of Vulnerability: (02:18 PM)

Economic Vulnerability:

The susceptibility of a community to economic losses due to disasters is influenced by factors

such as low-income levels and reliance on a single industry.

Physical Vulnerability:

The extent to which infrastructure can withstand disasters.

Example: Wooden houses are less likely to collapse in an earthquake but are more vulnerable
to fire.

Social Vulnerability:

The susceptibility of marginalized social groups such as the poor, pregnant women, persons
with disabilities (Divyangjan), children, and the elderly.

Environmental Vulnerability:

The susceptibility of the natural environment to disasters is often exacerbated by pre-existing

conditions such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change.

Attitudinal Vulnerability:

Refers to individuals' or communities' attitudes towards taking preventive measures or

adapting to hazards.

Example: A lack of awareness, denial of risk, or resistance to change.

Organizational Vulnerability:

Caused by the absence of strong central, state, and grassroots institutional structures.

Political Vulnerability:

Stems from limited access to political decision-making and resources.

Cultural Vulnerability:

Results from blind faith in customs and beliefs that hinder disaster preparedness.

Educational Vulnerability:

Due to a lack of access to disaster-related information and knowledge.

India’s Vulnerability to Disasters

According to the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) under the Ministry of
Home Affairs:

Out of 36 states and union territories, 26 are disaster-prone.

85% of India’s total area is vulnerable to single or multiple disasters.

68% of cultivable land is prone to drought.

58% of India’s landmass is susceptible to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity.

15% of the area is prone to landslides.

12% of the area is prone to floods.

8% of the area is vulnerable to cyclones.

Vulnerability Assessment:

The process of vulnerability assessment involves two key questions:

Who is vulnerable?

Pregnant women, children, elderly individuals, persons with disabilities, and livestock.

What is vulnerable?

Buildings, areas near water bodies, livelihood assets such as boats, important documents,
drinking water sources, roads, and communication lines.

Capacity Assessment

Capacity assessment focuses on identifying locally available assets and resources that can be
utilized to strengthen disaster management. It has two components:

Human Resource Assessment:

Examples: Knowledge, skills, expertise.

Material Resource Assessment:

Examples: Funds, infrastructure, equipment.

Disaster Resilience (03:00 PM)

Disaster resilience refers to the capacity of communities or nations to effectively prepare for,
respond to, and recover from disasters, thereby minimizing their impact on lives, livelihoods,
and infrastructure.

Elements of Disaster Resilience:

Context:
Whose resilience is being built?

Example: A social group, political institution, environmental organization, etc.

Disturbance:

What shocks (sudden events or disasters) and/or stresses (long-term trends like deforestation,
climate change, etc.) is the group aiming to be resilient against?

Capacity to Respond:

It depends on:

a) Exposure: The magnitude of the shock or stress.

b) Sensitivity: The degree to which a system or community is affected.

c) Adaptive Capacity: The ability to adjust to disturbances and cope with consequences.

Elements of Response:

A range of responses is possible:

a) Bounce back better: Capacities are enhanced, exposures are reduced, and the system is
better prepared for future shocks or stresses.

b) Bounce back: Preexisting conditions are restored.

c) Recover but worse than before: Capacities are reduced.

d) Collapse: The system fails, leading to a catastrophic reduction in the ability to cope with
future challenges.

Disaster Risk (03:27 PM)

Disaster risk is the expected damage or loss resulting from a combination of hazards,
vulnerability, and capacity. People are considered at risk when they are unable to cope with a
hazard.

It can also be defined as a function of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability.

Risk Assessment:
Risk assessment is the methodology used to determine the nature and extent of risk by
analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could
threaten people, property, livelihoods, and the environment.

Risk Management Process:

Risk Perception:

Awareness of risk varies across different societies.

Risk Identification:

A technical evaluation process involving hazard assessment, vulnerability assessment, and risk
assessment & analysis.

Risk Reduction/Mitigation:

Measures taken to reduce physical, social, and environmental vulnerability.

Examples: Early Warning Systems (EWS), MGNREGA, etc.

Risk Transfer:

Includes financial mechanisms like insurance to transfer risk.

Example: Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY).

Disaster Management Cycle

It includes a sum total of activities, programmes and measures which can be taken up before,
during and after a disaster.

Phases of Disaster Management

Disaster management consists of three phases:

Pre-Disaster Phase:

Includes prevention, mitigation, and preparedness.

During the Disaster Phase:

Involves emergency response and relief.

Post-Disaster Phase:

Encompasses response, relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and recovery.

Prevention, Mitigation, and Adaptation (03:40 PM)

Prevention:

Activities aimed at completely avoiding the adverse impacts of disasters.

Mitigation and Adaptation:

Disaster Mitigation:

Efforts to reduce or minimize the impact of disasters on people and property.

Mitigation can occur before, during, or after a disaster, but it is most often used proactively,
meaning before a disaster occurs.

Types of Disaster Mitigation:

Structural Approach:

Includes engineered and non-engineered structures.

a) Engineered Structures:

Designed by architects and engineers.

Involves activities such as planning and designing bridges, dams, buildings, and roads.

b) Non-Engineered Structures:

Constructed by local people using available resources, knowledge, and skills.

Non-Structural Approach:

Focuses on human behaviour and preparedness measures such as awareness generation,

education, training, and adherence to rules and laws.

These measures are intangible and not easily quantifiable.

Disaster Adaptation:

The process of adjusting to the current and future effects of disasters.

Climate Change Mitigation vs Climate Change Adaptation (03:52 PM)

Climate Change Mitigation Climate change adaptation

Preventing or reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to make the
impact of climate change less severe Anticipating the adverse effects of climate change
and adjusting to the future vulnerability.

It is achieved either by reducing the sources of these gases or by enhancing the storage. It
includes large-scale infrastructure changes. For example, see Wall by Japan or behavioural
shifts.

It addresses the cause. It addresses the consequences.

The focus is global impact. The focus is the local solution.

The focus is on the global north.

The focus is the global south.

Examples are clean energy, energy efficiency, sustainable transportation

For example, Heat-resistant crops, flood protection

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN THE NEXT LECTURE: CONTINUATION OF THE CHAPTER DISASTER

MANAGEMENT CYCLE

CLASS 2
Previous Class Topic

Basic concepts of hazards, vulnerability, and capacity

Initial coverage of disaster management cycle (hazard to disaster transition, prevention,

mitigation, and adaptation)

Key Definitions in Disaster Management

Disaster Preparedness
Involves

knowledge, capabilities, and actions

of various stakeholders (governments, organizations, communities, individuals) to

anticipate, respond to, and recover

from likely hazard events.

Focuses on strengthening capacities at multiple levels:

Individual-level

(e.g., first-aid and CPR training)

Household-level

(e.g., stockpiling equipment and supplies)

Community-level

(e.g., drills, public training)

Government-level

(e.g., early warning systems, contingency plans, public information dissemination)

Response/Relief

short- or long-term

set of actions aimed at

reducing suffering and distress

after a disaster strikes. Emphasizes saving lives and

addressing shock or trauma

caused by sudden losses.

Components of Response/Relief

Search and Rescue (SAR): Locating and extracting affected individuals.

Health Assessment and Emergency Healthcare: Evaluating immediate medical needs and
preventing disease outbreaks.

Epidemiological Surveys (EPI): Tracking health risks and potential contagions.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Laying out step-by-step actions for emergency
response.

GIS and Remote Sensing: Mapping disaster areas, assessing damage, and planning relief routes.

Community Radio, Internet, and Communication Systems: Ensuring continuous updates and
warnings.

Evacuation Plans: Relocating people from hazard zones to safe areas.

Rehabilitation

Aims to restore

the affected community to its

pre-disaster living conditions

and facilitate adjustments to new realities.

Rehabilitation Covers:

Physical Rehabilitation: Rebuilding roads, homes, and public infrastructure.

Social Rehabilitation: Providing education and care for vulnerable groups.

Economic Rehabilitation: Compensation for victims to revive livelihoods.

Psychological Rehabilitation: Counseling to address trauma and shock.

Reconstruction
Entails

actions taken after rehabilitation

to fully restore or rebuild permanent structures and critical services. Returns

physical infrastructure and services

to the pre-disaster state (or close to it), emphasizing stability and long-term functionality.

Recovery

Includes rehabilitation and reconstruction decisions

aimed at

restoring or improving

pre-disaster conditions. Encourages

necessary adjustments

to reduce future disaster risk. Highlights the

importance of resilience

through better construction standards, planning, and capacity building.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Centers on

lowering disaster risks

by minimizing exposure to hazards, reducing vulnerability, and

improving land/environment management

and preparedness.

DRR integrates:
Prevention: Avoiding or delaying the onset of hazards.

Mitigation:

Structural

(e.g., safer buildings) and

non-structural

(e.g., regulations) measures.

Preparedness: Capacity building at individual, household, community, and governmental levels.

Disaster Management Cycle in Detail

Pre-Disaster Phase:

Prevention

(avoiding hazards) and

mitigation

(reducing severity).

Preparedness

(knowledge, drills, resources in place).

During Disaster:

Response and Relief

(urgent lifesaving measures, search and rescue, emergency supplies).

Post-Disaster:

Rehabilitation, Reconstruction, Recovery

(restoring infrastructure, rebuilding livelihoods, addressing trauma, and improving resilience).

Evolution of Disaster Management at the Global Level

1970–1971: Bhola Cyclone and Establishment of UNDRO

1970 Bhola Cyclone

in East Pakistan caused massive loss of life (3–5 lakh fatalities). Prompted global awareness and

emergency relief

discussions.

1971:

Office of the

UN Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO)

set up to

provide emergency assistance

to states affected by disasters. Reflected a

relief-oriented and reactive

approach, mostly focusing on

post-disaster support

1990–1999: International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)

Declared by the UN General Assembly to

shift from relief

towards

risk reduction

. Encouraged global

hazard assessment, vulnerability reduction,

and improved management strategies.

1994: Yokohama Strategy

First World Conference

on Natural Disaster Reduction held in Yokohama, Japan. Adopted the

Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action

, emphasizing

disaster prevention, preparedness, and mitigation

1999: Transition to UNISDR

End of the IDNDR led to the creation of the

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)

. Aimed at fostering

risk reduction

internationally and developing coordinated plans. Reflected a shift from

natural

to

all disasters

approach, recognizing

man-made triggers

as well.

2005: Second World Conference and Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA)

Held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan. Introduced the

Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015)

on

“Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters.”

Five priority areas (broadly):

Ensure DRR is a national/local priority

Identify and monitor risks; strengthen early warning systems

Use knowledge and innovation

to build safety cultures.

Reduce underlying risk factors

, e.g., environmental degradation or poverty.

Strengthen preparedness

for an effective response.

2015: Third World Conference and Sendai Framework

Hosted in Sendai, Japan, focusing on

Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030)

. Succeeded the Hyogo Framework, recognizing

increased frequency, intensity,

and complexity of disasters worldwide.

Four Priorities under Sendai

Understanding Disaster Risk:

Assesses

vulnerability, exposure, capacity,

and hazard characteristics.

Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance:

Enhances

coordination

at

national, regional, and global

levels.

Investing in DRR for Resilience:

Allocates resources to

infrastructure, technology, and capacity building

Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response and “Build Back Better”:

Embeds

improvements

in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction phases.

Seven Global Targets under Sendai

Reduce global disaster mortality

.

Decrease the number of people affected

Lower direct economic losses

related to GDP.

Cut damage

to critical infrastructure and basic services.

Increase the number of countries

with national and local DRR strategies.

Enhance international cooperation

with developing nations.

Boost availability

of

multi-hazard Early Warning Systems (EWS)

and access to them.

2019: Transition from UNISDR to UNDRR

The

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR)

replaced UNISDR to

strengthen global coordination

in line with the Sendai Framework.

Evolution of Disaster Management in India

Pre-2005 Initiatives and Key Disasters

Before the 2000s,

disaster management

in India was

fragmented

and linked primarily to

relief efforts

under the Ministry of Agriculture.

Major events

shaped national policies

1989: Following the UN’s IDNDR declaration, a

Disaster Management Cell

was formed in the Ministry of Agriculture.

1999 Odisha Super Cyclone: Severe impact (10,000+ deaths) prompted establishment of a

High-Powered Committee

under J.C. Pant.

2001 Bhuj Earthquake: Led to the

National Committee on Disaster Management

2002:

Disaster Management Division

shifted from Agriculture

to the

Ministry of Home Affairs

, reflecting the rising

all-hazard

perspective.

Disaster Management Act (2005)

Enacted after the

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

. Provided a

legal framework

to manage disasters comprehensively. Created institutions like the

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

and the

National Executive Committee (NEC)

. Assigned the

Ministry of Home Affairs

with the

overall responsibility

for disaster management.

National Policy on Disaster Management (2009)

Issued under provisions of the DM Act (2005). Offers a

broad roadmap
for holistic disaster management, defining

principles

and

objectives

to guide national strategy. Stresses

community-based approaches

capacity building

, and

awareness campaigns

National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (2013)

Established to bring together government bodies, NGOs, media, scientific and corporate
entities. Facilitates

consultation

collaborative planning

, and

experience-sharing

to strengthen DRR measures. Chaired by the

Union Home Minister

to ensure high-level coordination.

National Disaster Management Plan (2016 & 2019)

Introduced

comprehensive guidelines

aligning with the

Sendai Framework

, the

Paris Agreement

, and the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

. Emphasizes

risk identification, prevention, mitigation,

and

preparedness

across central and local levels. Updated in 2019 for

more robust frameworks

in response to evolving disaster threats.

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (2019)

Launched under India’s leadership to

promote resilient infrastructure

worldwide. Encourages

shared knowledge

, best practices, and innovations in infrastructure design to

better withstand
disasters.

Recent Initiatives (2022–2023)

2022: Disaster Management Plan of the

Ministry of Panchayati Raj

underlined local-level actions and

stronger institutional

capacities.

2023: Under India’s presidency of the G20, a new

Global Working Group on DRR

was established with key priorities:

Expanding

early warning systems

for hydrometeorological hazards.

Building

climate-resilient

and

infrastructure-resilient

societies.

Strengthening

national financial frameworks

for disaster risk.

Improving

disaster response mechanisms

.

Adopting an

ecosystem-based approach

with

nature-based solutions

(e.g., mangrove planting to minimize flood impact).

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

Detailed exploration of the Disaster Management Act provisions

Discussion of national policies, plans, and their strategic roles in disaster mitigation

CLASS 3

Previous Class Topic

Covered foundational concepts: meaning of disasters, hazards versus disasters, classifications,

and hazard assessment.

Discussed vulnerability, capacity, risk formula (

hazard × vulnerability ÷ capacity

), disaster management cycle (pre, during, post), structural and non-structural measures,
preparedness, response, relief, reconstruction, rehabilitation, recovery, disaster risk reduction,
and an overview of the evolution of disaster management at international and national levels.

Disaster Management Act 2005

Enactment Context
Enacted after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Provides a legal framework for a structured
approach to disaster management in the country.

Definition of Disaster

Defines disasters as catastrophes, mishaps, calamities, or grave occurrences stemming from

natural or man-made causes. Emphasizes their impact on life, property, and environment.

Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) Coordination

Overall coordination at the national level is assigned to the MHA. This makes disaster
management a key function of national security and internal affairs coordination.

Three-Tier Structure

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Headed by the Prime Minister. Formulates
policies, plans, and guidelines at the national level.

State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs): Headed by respective Chief Ministers.

Responsible for state-level disaster management.

District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs): Headed by District Magistrates.

Implements and supervises disaster management at the district level.

National Executive Committee (NEC) and State Executive Committees (SECs)

Assist NDMA and SDMAs in their functions.

The Union Home Secretary serves as the ex officio chairperson at the national level; analogous
arrangements exist at the state level.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

Established under the Act to respond to disasters, conduct search and rescue operations, and
provide medical aid and relief.
Comprises 16 battalions drawn on deputation from Central Armed Police Forces.

Deploys domestically (e.g., flood relief and earthquake rescue) and internationally (

Operation Dost

in Turkey-Syria).

Faces challenges like dual control (through both MHA and NDMA), a 100% deputation model
causing limited continuity, wide scope of operations (from small local incidents to large-scale
disasters), and budget constraints.

Impending Amendments (Disaster Management Bill 2024)

Proposes additional provisions, including legal recognition of a State Disaster Response Force
(SDRF). Seeks to strengthen existing structures and address gaps identified since 2005.

National and State Disaster Response Funds

National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF - Fund) and State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF - Fund)

Finance disaster response measures; evolved from the earlier National Calamity Contingency
Fund.

SDRF is the primary fund with the states; NDRF supplements it in severe disasters.

Placed in the Public Account of India to allow faster release without parliamentary delays.

Central government usually contributes 75% of SDRF allocations to general-category states, and
90% to north-eastern and Himalayan states.
Accounts are audited annually by the Comptroller and Auditor General.

Notified Disasters

Only specific disasters in a central list (12 types: cyclones, drought, earthquakes, fires, tsunamis,
floods, hailstorms, landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, pest attacks, frost/cold waves) qualify
for NDRF/SDRF assistance.

Heat waves are not part of the notified list, though there have been calls to include them.

COVID-19 was temporarily added, reflecting evolving needs for fund usage.

National and State Disaster Mitigation Funds

National Disaster Mitigation Fund and State Disaster Mitigation Funds

Mandated by the 2005 Act but became operational through recommendations of the 15th
Finance Commission (from 2021).

Aim to reduce disaster impacts and promote preventive measures.

Funding pattern mirrors that of the response funds (75-25 for most states, 90-10 for north-
eastern and Himalayan states).

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

Functions

Undertakes research, training, capacity building, and policy advocacy in disaster management.
Originated from the 1995 National Center for Disaster Management, later brought under the
2005 Act.

The Home Minister acts as its president.

Based in Delhi, conducts specialized programs for administrators and other stakeholders.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and High-Level Committee (HLC)

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

Addresses severe disasters with wide-scale ramifications.

Headed by the Cabinet Secretary.

Coordinates multi-state or national-level responses to ensure resources reach affected regions

quickly.

High-Level Committee (HLC)

Provides financial support to states during disasters.

Led by the minister of the relevant department overseeing a particular disaster.

Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)

Involvement if a disaster carries potential security implications.

Headed by the Prime Minister and includes key ministers (Defense, Home, Finance, External
Affairs).

Urban Disaster Management Authority (Proposed)

Urban Disaster Management Authority

An upcoming provision in the Disaster Management Bill 2024, empowering states to create
dedicated bodies for large urban areas with municipal corporations. It addresses complex risks
in rapidly expanding urban environments.

Role of District Administration

Key Responsibilities

Prepare comprehensive disaster management plans at district level.

Coordinate state, local, and civil society actions.

Identify hazards, vulnerabilities, and resource gaps.

Review the level of preparedness and conduct mock drills.

Enforce safe construction standards and identify designated relief centers.

Maintain essential communication systems to ensure functionality during and after disasters.

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) 2016/2019

Mandate
The Act of 2005 requires national, state, and district-level disaster management plans.

The NDMA formulated the first plan in 2016, later updated in 2019.

Alignment

Aligned with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, Sustainable Development
Goals, and the Paris Climate Agreement.

Covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation, response, and recovery.

Spells out roles and responsibilities of various ministries, departments, and local bodies.

Ministry-Wise Responsibilities

Each disaster type is assigned a nodal ministry for technical governance. Examples: Ministry of
Civil Aviation for air accidents, Ministry of Railways for rail accidents, Ministry of Earth Sciences
for earthquakes, Ministry of Environment for industrial/chemical disasters, and so forth.

Floods generally come under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, but urban floods fall under the Ministry
of Housing and Urban Affairs.

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

Global Partnership

Launched in 2019 by India at the UN Climate Action Summit.

HQ in Delhi, with 39 members (31 countries, 6 international organizations, 2 from private

sector).
Promotes knowledge sharing and financing for disaster-resilient infrastructure (DRI).

Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure (DRI)

Focus on critical assets: public facilities, power systems, transportation, telecom, dams, and
other key structures designed to withstand disasters.

Includes structural design improvements and adaptability measures to reduce damage.

Disaster Management Plan of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj (DMP–MoPR, 2022)

Village Disaster Management Plans (VDMP)

Each village is to have its own plan as the foundation for higher administrative levels (Gram
Panchayat ⇒ Block ⇒ District).

bottom-up approach

that emphasizes local participation in drafting strategies.

Dedicated Committees and Working Groups

A Village Committee on Disaster Management in each village.

A working group on disaster management in every panchayat.

Each committee selects at least two members for specialized, competence-based training.
Social Inclusion

Ensures community-based planning includes vulnerable groups (e.g., women, children,

scheduled castes/tribes, persons with disabilities).

Integrates hazard zoning, vulnerability mapping, and capacity analysis at the local level.

Role of Panchayats in Disaster Management

Pre-Disaster Phase

Awareness Campaigns:

Inform the community about risk mitigation, early warning signals, and preparedness
strategies.

Resource Gap Identification:

Assess the inventory of supplies, human resources, and local assets needed in disaster
scenarios.

Coordination with Various Entities:

Forge synergy with NGOs, community-based organizations, and government agencies.

Activating Local Plans:

Encourage community participation in implementing disaster management measures.

During Disaster

Emergency Communication:

Maintain lines of communication for timely alerts and coordination.

Evacuation and Relief Camps:

Provide shelters, safe drinking water, sanitation, and medical support. Ensure proper disposal
of carcasses to avoid secondary health hazards.

Special Health Needs:

Create supportive environments for particularly vulnerable populations such as adolescent girls,
pregnant women, and older individuals.

Post-Disaster Phase

Damage Assessment:

Identify affected individuals, assess property losses, and prepare compensation lists.

Rehabilitation and Reconstruction:

Formulate plans to rebuild crucial infrastructure following safety norms.

Monitoring and Supervision:

Oversee implementation of long-term projects that reduce future risks.

Case Study: Hiware Bazar (Maharashtra)

Context

Previously a drought-prone village in the Ahmednagar district.

Watershed Development
Implemented measures such as percolation tanks, widening/deepening drainage channels,
continuous contour trenches, and plantation efforts.

Outcomes

Improved water availability, successful cropping patterns, and enhanced livelihoods for
residents.

Became a model for village-led resilience and development, illustrating the efficacy of
grassroots initiatives.

Earthquakes

Definition and Causes

Sudden shaking of the Earth due to tectonic or volcanic activity releasing seismic energy.

Principal causes include tectonic plate movements (convergent, divergent, transform

boundaries), volcanic activity, and human-induced factors (large reservoir load, mining,
tunneling).

Magnitude and Intensity

Magnitude:

Measures the energy released at the focus of an earthquake. Common scales include the

Richter Scale

(1930s) and

Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw)

(1970s).
Intensity:

Observed damage at the surface, varying with distance from epicenter and local conditions.
Common scales include Mercalli (1902), Modified Mercalli (1930s), and MSK (1960s).

Global Distribution

Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire):

Accounts for around 81% of the world’s major earthquakes.

Mid-Continental Belt (Alpine Earthquake Belt):

Represents about 17% of global large earthquakes, extending from Europe to Sumatra via the
Mediterranean and Himalayas.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge:

Divergent boundary running under the Atlantic Ocean, visible on land in Iceland.

Seismic Zones in India

Four zones: Zone V (highest risk), IV, III, and II (lowest risk). Zone V corresponds to MSK
intensity 9 and above and covers high-risk regions like Kashmir Valley, parts of Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand, north Bihar, northeast states, Andaman and Nicobar, and parts of
the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.

Zone IV corresponds to MSK intensity 8, including parts of Delhi, certain areas of northern India,
and regions of Maharashtra. Zones III and II have progressively lower intensity thresholds.

Impact of Earthquakes

Loss of life and infrastructure, with immediate threats including collapsing structures and
disruptions in crucial services.
Associated disasters like landslides, avalanches, tsunamis, and dam failures can be triggered by
seismic activity.

Secondary hazards include fires (due to pipeline ruptures, industrial accidents) and soil
liquefaction (in water-logged sediments), leading to subsidence.

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

CLASS 4
Previous Class Topic

Covered the Disaster Management Act (2005), the National Disaster Management Plan (2016
and 2019 updates), and the Ministry of Panchayati Raj Disaster Management Plan (2022).

Discussed the evolution of institutional setups, focusing on the bottom-up approach through
Panchayati Raj institutions, illustrated by the

Hiware Bazaar

case study in Maharashtra.

Earthquakes

Major Earthquakes in India

Latur Earthquake (1993)

Magnitude:

Mw 6.2, shallow, intraplate event.

Casualties:

Around 10,000.

Cause:
Associated with a previously unknown “blind fault” in the stable peninsular region.

Chamoli Earthquake (1999)

Magnitude:

Mw 6.6, shallow, located in Uttarakhand.

Fault Type:

Thrust fault leading to landslides.

Impact:

Over 100 deaths.

Bhuj Earthquake (2001)

Magnitude:

Mw 7.6, shallow, occurred on January 26.

Fault:

Reactivation of the Allah Bund fault due to ongoing plate convergence.

Damage:

Severe infrastructure loss and high casualties in Gujarat.

Indian Ocean Tsunami Earthquake (2004)

Magnitude:

Mw 9.2–9.3, undersea and shallow.

Impact:

Generated a major tsunami, causing around 225,000 deaths across the Indian Ocean region.

India:

Over 10,000 deaths, with more than 5,600 missing.

Kashmir Earthquake (2005)

Magnitude:
Mw 7.6, shallow, epicenter in Pakistan.

Cause:

Upthrust of the Indian Plate against the Eurasian Plate.

Impact:

80,000 total fatalities; about 1,300 in India.

Sikkim Earthquake (2011)

Magnitude:

Mw 6.9, shallow, epicenter in eastern Nepal.

Impact:

111 deaths, mainly in Sikkim.

Steps Taken to Manage Earthquakes

National Centre for Seismology (NCS)

Role:

Nodal agency under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, operating a 24×7 seismic monitoring
network.

Coverage:

Over 160 stations under the National Seismological Network.

National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (2013)

Aim:

Mitigation

of high-risk zones through structural and non-structural strengthening.

Focus:

Reducing vulnerabilities in earthquake-prone districts.

National Building Code of India (2016)

Guidelines:

Regulates building construction for structural sufficiency and fire safety.

Emphasis:

Earthquake resilience in design.

Building Material and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC, 1990)

Mandate:

Resource-efficient, climate-resilient, and disaster-resistant construction practices.

Includes:

Retrofitting lifeline structures such as hospitals and other critical facilities.

NDMA Guidelines on Earthquake Management (2007)

Six Pillars of Seismic Safety

Earthquake-Resistant Construction

Focus on new structures in high-seismic zones.

Selective Retrofitting of Priority Buildings

Use of reinforcement and structural upgrades for older, critical buildings.

Regulation & Enforcement

Implementation of building codes and continuous review of compliance.

Awareness & Preparedness

Community preparedness

drills (e.g., “drop, cover, hold”), vulnerability mapping, and mock exercises.

Capacity Development

Training, research, and documentation to strengthen professional expertise.

Emergency Response

Rapid search and rescue, shelter provision, and medical assistance.

Volcanoes in India

Active Volcano:

Barren Island

in the Andaman Sea.

Dormant Volcano:

Narcondam Island

in the Andaman region.

Extinct Volcano:

Dhosi Hill

in Haryana.

Volcanic hazards within India remain minimal as the active site is uninhabited.

Landslides

Definition & Vulnerability

landslide

is the downward movement of rock, debris, or earth along a slope.

India ranks among the top five landslide-prone nations, with around 12.6% of its land area
susceptible.

Mountainous zones—particularly the Himalayas, Northeastern ranges, and the Western

Ghats—are most at risk.

Major Landslide-Prone Regions

Northwestern Himalayas – About 66.5% of landslides occur here.

Northeastern Himalayas – Around 18.8% of landslides.

Western Ghats – Approximately 14.7% of recorded landslides.

Other areas include portions of the Aravallis or smaller hill systems under specific conditions.
Causes of Landslides

Natural Factors

Heavy Rainfall:

Loosens soil and destabilizes slopes (e.g., Wayanad region).

Earthquakes & Volcanic Activity:

Shaking disrupts slope stability.

Anthropogenic Factors

Deforestation:

Reduces root binding and allows rapid runoff.

Road Building & Rock Blasting:

Disturbs slope structure.

Shifting Agriculture:

Slash-and-burn practices in mountainous areas weaken soils.

Challenges in Landslide Mitigation

Unpredictable Rainfall – High-intensity precipitation events are difficult to forecast precisely.

Geomorphological Instability – Young, sedimentary mountains have frequent slope failures.

High Population Density in Hill Towns – Critical infrastructure often stands on fragile slopes.

Generalized Mitigation Measures – Policies sometimes only state “afforestation” without

specifying suitable plant species or slope stabilization techniques.

Lack of Comprehensive Zonation Maps – Absence of seamless, detailed landslide mapping in

many districts.

Steps Taken to Manage Landslides

National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Programme (NLSMP, 2014–15)

Led by the

Geological Survey of India

to identify and map vulnerable zones.

Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS, 2019)

Extended technical and financial support to affected states.

Landslide Atlas of India (2023)

Prepared by

ISRO

to highlight major hotspots.

National Landslide Risk Management Strategy (2019)

Proposes hazard zoning at macro/micro levels, early warning systems, capacity-building

initiatives, and updated building regulations.

Floods

Definition & Causes

flood

involves excess water submerging typically dry land.

About 85% of annual rainfall in certain regions occurs in 3–4 monsoon months, contributing to
flooding.

Nearly 12% of India’s area is considered flood-prone.

Natural Causes

Heavy Rainfall: Sudden and intense precipitation can overwhelm river capacity.

Sediment Deposition: Silting narrows channels, raising flood risk.

Cyclones & Storm Surges: Strong winds drive ocean water inland.

Shifts in River Course: Rivers like the Kosi may change channels abruptly.

Tsunamis: Coastal flooding from seismic sea waves.

Anthropogenic Causes
Deforestation & Wetland Destruction: Loss of trees and marshlands accelerates water flow.

Unplanned Urbanization: Construction in floodplains and poor drainage aggravate flood

hazards.

Transboundary Water Management: Dam construction upstream can alter downstream flows.

Clogged Drainage: Poor waste disposal leads to overflow during storms.

Consequences of Floods

Loss of Life & Property: People lose homes and livelihoods.

Damage to Livestock & Wildlife: Large-scale displacement and death of animals.

Agricultural Destruction: Crops ruined, causing economic stress.

Infrastructure Ruin: Roads, bridges, and rails often damaged.

Disease Outbreaks: Floodwaters spread pathogens like cholera and dengue.

Positive Aspect:

Soil Fertility

improves through the deposition of alluvium.

Mitigation Measures & NDMA Guidelines on Flood Management (2008)

Structural Measures

Dams, embankments, flood levees, and

desilting

of river channels.

Watershed Management

encourages holistic planning across basins.

Non-Structural Measures

Floodplain Zoning:

Regulate land use near rivers.

Flood Forecasting & Real-Time Warnings:

Aim to alert communities for evacuation.

Regulation & Enforcement - Adaptation of guidelines and regular review to ensure compliance.

Capacity Development - Involves training, research, and maintaining documentation of past

flood experiences.

Emergency Response & Recovery - Search and rescue, relief distribution, temporary shelters,
and disease prevention.

Types of Floods

Flash Floods

Characterized by sudden water rise within

hours

of intense rainfall.

Common in mountainous regions with steep slopes and

narrow river channels

Notable examples include rapid flooding in areas of Uttarakhand due to

cloudbursts

Urban Floods

Occur in metropolitan centers due to

high runoff

over concrete surfaces.

Key Drivers

Reduced infiltration from paving and buildings.

Drainage clogging
by plastics and waste.

High population densities that strain existing sewer systems.

Meteorological factors like monsoon rainfall, cyclones, or depressions.

NDMA Guidelines on Urban Floods (2010)

Early Warning Systems

Integration of advanced forecast models (e.g.,

IFLOWS

), and

nowcast

approaches for real-time data.

Vulnerability Analysis

Hazard risk zoning to identify high-risk city sectors.

Drainage Management

Enhancing capacity for

permeable surfaces

such as public parks and wetlands.

Urban Flooding Cells (UFCs)

Dedicated units under housing or urban development authorities for coordination.

Emergency Response

Immediate rescue, mobilizing flood shelters, and distributing relief.

Sanitation & Disinfection

Minimizing outbreaks of water-borne diseases via sustained clean-up efforts.

Capacity Building

Training programs, awareness drives, and continuous monitoring of critical areas.

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)

Sudden release of meltwater from

glacial lakes

, often held back by weak moraine or ice dams.

Lakes form in mountain valleys when glaciers carve basins, and meltwater pools behind
sediment ridges.

Causes of GLOFs

Moraine Dam Instability: Sedimentary moraine walls can fail, releasing large volumes of water.

Ice Dam Failure: Warmer temperatures weaken natural ice blockages.

Seismic Events: Earthquakes degrade or breach natural dams.

Glacial Surging: Rapid movement of ice exerts pressure on the lake’s boundaries.

Anthropogenic Pressures: Infrastructure building, deforestation, and accelerating

climate change

increase lake formation and thawing rates.

Steps to Address GLOFs

NDMA Guidelines (2020)

Emphasize

hazard mapping

of glacial lakes, early warning systems, and evacuation drills.

Identification of At-Risk Lakes

Over 180 high-risk sites in Himalayan states have been cataloged.

Mandatory GLOF Studies

Proposed for any hydropower or large dam within glacial catchments.

GLOF Risk Mitigation Project (2024)

Targets four Himalayan states with capacity-building and technological innovations.

Monitoring Initiatives

National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS)

supports research on glacier-lake dynamics.

ICIMOD

(International Center for Integrated Mountain Development) leads a

Cryosphere Initiative

covering the Hindu Kush Himalayas.

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

Further details on

cloudbursts

and associated extreme rainfall hazards.

CLASS 5
Previous Class Topic

Earthquakes and Landslides

Volcanoes

Floods and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF)

Cloudbursts

Definition

A cloudburst is a

localized but intense

rainfall event causing a sudden, heavy downpour in a small area.

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines it as rainfall of

10 cm or more

per hour over an area of about

20–30 sq. km

Mechanism

Involves

orographic rainfall

as moist air ascends mountainous terrain and cools.

Strong upward winds

(orographic lift) prevent raindrops from descending, causing them to accumulate in large
cumulonimbus clouds.

Once the moisture overloads these clouds, rainfall is released rapidly in a short time,
leading to

flash floods

, especially in

steep hilly regions

Examples

2023 cloudburst over South Lhonak Lake in Sikkim contributed to a GLOF and subsequent
flash floods.

2021 cloudburst in Chamoli, Uttarakhand, resulted in extensive water release and damage
to downstream areas.

Challenges in Prediction

Highly

localized conditions

make forecasting difficult.

Variations in local topography, temperature, and wind speed complicate timely alerts.

IMD’s initiatives like

Mission Mausam

focus on

short-term (6–12 hours) hyper-local forecasts

using radars and high-resolution modeling.

Proposed Steps

Strengthening early warning systems with radar-based high-temporal-frequency

observations.

Enhancing local preparedness through capacity building and

NDMA guidelines

for managing flash floods.

Incorporating

risk mapping

and

responsive evacuation

plans for

hilly terrain

communities.

Dam Failures

Definition

Partial or complete collapse of a dam structure or its foundation that

prevents it from retaining water

and leads to rapid and dangerous water release downstream.

Major Examples
1975 Banqiao Dam failure (China)

Subsequent collapse of

60 downstream dams

and over

80,000

fatalities.

1979 Machhu Dam failure (Morbi, Gujarat)

Led to

2,000+

deaths.

2023 Derna Dam collapse (Libya)

Resulting in

3,800+

casualties.

Notable reference:

Chungthang Dam

in Sikkim was heavily impacted by flood events in 2023.

Causes of Dam Failures

Aging Dams

Many dams exceed

100 years

(e.g.,

Mullaperiyar Dam, 1895

).

Seismic Vulnerability
Earthquakes weaken foundations through

liquefaction

Floods or GLOFs

Sudden high inflows strain the structure (e.g.,

Chungthang Dam

).

Structural Flaws

Poor design overlooking extreme weather events (e.g.,

Banqiao Dam

).

Sedimentation

Reduces reservoir capacity, raising water levels and pressure on dam walls.

Non-Compliance

Failure to follow recommended safety measures (e.g.,

CAG report on Gandhi Sagar Dam

).

Key Initiatives

National Register of Large Dams under the Central Water Commission (CWC).

Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP)

Multi-phase World Bank-supported project targeting

rehabilitation of aging dams

Dam Health and Rehabilitation Monitoring Application

Centralizes data on dam condition.

India Water Resource Information System (WRIS)

Single window repository mapping water resources.

Seismic Hazard Analysis Information System Tool

Assesses seismic-related risks.

National Centre for Earthquake Safety of Dams (2023)

Focuses on structural stability and seismic safety.

Dam Safety Act (2021)

Establishes a

4-tier institutional mechanism

National Committee on Dam Safety → National Dam Safety Authority

State Committee on Dam Safety → State Dam Safety Organisation (SDSO)

Droughts

Definition

serious deficiency

in water availability, largely caused by

inadequate rainfall

, affects agriculture, drinkable water, and industry.

Onset

occurs with a rainfall deficiency of

up to 25% of normal

moderate

drought is 26–50%, and

severe

drought is over 50% deficiency.

Types of Drought

Meteorological Drought

Reduced precipitation relative to normal.

Agricultural Drought

Lowered

soil moisture

affecting crop growth.

Hydrological Drought

Reduced

water availability

in reservoirs/lakes.

Drought-Prone Areas

An estimated 16% of India’s land

is drought-prone.

Central and western parts of the country, rain-shadow regions of the Deccan Plateau, and
parts of Rajasthan.

68% of net sown area

frequently faces drought conditions.

Government Approach

Historic Shifts

1970s: Focus on

desert ecology revival

(e.g.,
Drought Prone Areas Programme

Desert Development Programme

).

1980s: Emphasis on

watershed development

(e.g.,

National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Areas

, Watershed Atlas of India).

2010s: Promotion of

rainwater harvesting

(e.g.,

MGNREGA

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana

Mission Kakatiya

).

NDMA Guidelines on Drought Management (2010)

Drought Monitoring Cells at state level to create vulnerability maps.

Watershed Development for long-term prevention.

Assessment & Early Warning Systems using automatic weather stations.

Prevention & Preparedness

Drought-resistant crop varieties, fodder banks, and even cloud seeding in severely affected
regions.
Crop insurance schemes in vulnerable areas.

Capacity Building among local bodies, institutions, and communities.

Relief & Response

Immediate assistance: water, food, healthcare, and

MGNREGA

for livelihood support.

Flash Drought

Rapid onset over days/weeks with minimal time for preparedness.

Influenced by

reduced rainfall, high temperatures, and increased wind speed

Threatens crop yield and livestock; can affect

food security

significantly.

Tsunamis

Definition

Large ocean waves caused by

undersea earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, or meteorite impacts

They are characterized by high speed in the deep ocean and significant wave height near
shore, often leading to

coastal inundation

Causes

Earthquake (most common)

Underwater/Lakeside Landslides

Undersea Volcanic Eruptions

Meteorite Impacts (rare)

Measures Taken

Key Steps

Disaster Management Act (2005) was introduced after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

NDMA Guidelines (2010) on tsunami management:

Tsunami risk assessment and vulnerability analysis.

Hazard mapping of coastal areas.

Cyclone shelters or elevated structures protect coastal communities.

Mangrove plantations as

bio-shields

Seawalls and coral reefs reduce wave impact.

Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) to limit construction in sensitive areas.

Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS)

Established in

2007

under the

Indian National Center for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)

Components:

Land-based seismic stations

monitor earthquake-prone zones like

Andaman-Sumatra
and the

Makran Coast

Bottom Pressure Recorders

detect subtle ocean floor pressure changes.

Real-time tide gauges

to measure anomalies in sea level.

Coastal vulnerability mapping

to identify high-risk regions.

Capacity building

programs for local communities.

Cyclones

Definition

Intense, often destructive,

low-pressure systems

with

spiraling winds

torrential rainfall

, and

storm surges

These are classified by maximum wind speed (e.g., deep depression, cyclonic storm, super
cyclone).

Distribution
More frequent in the

Bay of Bengal

than the

Arabian Sea

(approx. ratio 4:1).

It often strikes the

east coast

(e.g., Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu).

Special Phenomena

Fujiwhara Effect

Interaction of

two neighboring cyclones

spinning in the same direction.

They

orbit around each other

and sometimes

merge

into a larger system.

Twin Cyclones

Caused by

equatorial Rossby waves

, generating a

counterclockwise vortex

in the Northern Hemisphere and a mirrored

clockwise vortex
in the Southern Hemisphere.

Examples: Cyclones

Tej

(north) and

Hamoon

(south) in the Indian Ocean.

NDMA Guidelines (2008)

Cyclone Early Warning System by IMD with real-time data collection.

National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI) to ensure reliable flow of

warnings.

Structural Mitigation: Multipurpose cyclone shelters, cattle mounds, and strengthened

coastal engineering.

Coastal Zone Management: Vulnerability mapping and

bio-shields

like mangroves.

Cyclone Disaster Management Information System (CDMIS) for comprehensive

coordination.

National Cyclone Disaster Management Institute for research and training.

Aircraft Probing of Cyclones to refine track and intensity forecasting.

National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP)

Structural and non-structural measures in

13 coastal states/UTs

Includes early warning, capacity building, and improved coastal infrastructure.

Heat Waves

Definition
Periods of

abnormally high

maximum temperatures beyond normal summertime levels.

They occur primarily from

March to June

and sometimes extend to July.

IMD Criteria

≥ 40°C

in plains,

≥ 37°C

in coastal regions,

≥ 30°C

in hilly areas.

Declared using:

Departure from normal: 4–5°C above normal (heat wave), >6.4°C above normal (severe
heat wave).

Absolute maximum temperature: >45°C (heat wave), >47°C (severe).

Vulnerable Areas

Interior regions of north, central, and parts of peninsular India (e.g., Vidarbha, Telangana).

NDMA Guidelines (2019)

Formation of Heat Action Plans (HAPs) at national, state, and local levels.

Early Warning Systems with inter-agency coordination for timely alerts.

Awareness Campaigns: Do’s and Don’ts, water distribution, and shelter provisions.

Capacity Building of health facilities, local agencies, and civil society.

Long-Term Measures: Increase green cover and improve urban infrastructure to mitigate
heat.

Cold Waves

Definition

Unusually

low minimum

temperatures during winter. IMD yardsticks consider

10°C or below

in plains,

15°C or below

in coastal areas, and

0°C or below

in hilly regions.

Parameters

A cold wave is declared if temperatures dip

4°C below normal

, or the absolute minimum is below 4°C in plains (

severe cold wave

if below 2°C).

Affected Regions

Northern, northwestern, and central parts with cooler temperatures spanning the Gangetic
plains and Himalayan foothills.

NDMA Guidelines (2021)

Hazard, Vulnerability, and Risk Analysis through mapping cold-wave-prone zones.

Early Warning and Communication to local bodies and the public.

Preparedness:

Cold wave action plans for distributing blankets and setting up public shelters.

Protecting livestock through insulated enclosures and fodder supply.

Medical Arrangements:

Ensuring adequate health facilities for hypothermia cases in highly affected districts.

Community Awareness and stakeholder training, including local government bodies.

Wildfires / Forest Fires

Definition

An

uncontrolled

vegetation fire in forests or grasslands, started by

natural

(lightning) or

human

(accidental, malicious) causes.

Vulnerable Zones

Over

36%

of India’s forest cover is prone to fires (e.g., Rajasthan’s Sariska, Odisha’s Simlipal).

Impacts

Harms flora and fauna; leads to soil erosion and habitat loss.

Displaces forest communities and disrupts local economies (e.g., tourism).

Releases carbon, contributing to atmospheric pollution.

National Action Plan on Forest Fires (2018)

Fire Risk Zonation & Mapping: Identifies high-risk areas based on historical fire data.
Prevention Measures: Community involvement,

controlled burning

, and clearing litter.

Preparedness: Installation of

fire lines

or breaks to impede fire spread.

Fire Suppression: Rapid response units, water tankers, and protective equipment.

Post-Fire Management: Damage assessment, reforestation, and habitat restoration.

Forest Fire Monitoring & Alert System: Satellite-based detection under the Forest Survey of
India.

Biological Disasters

Definition

The rapid and extensive spread of

diseases among humans, animals, or plants

caused by microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, or toxins).

Types

Natural (epidemics, pandemics) managed by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Manmade (bioterrorism) under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Examples

COVID-19

(viral)

H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu)

Vector-borne diseases like dengue and malaria.

Management

Legal Framework
Epidemic Diseases Act (1897) with provisions to curb disease spread.

NDMA Guidelines on Management of Biological Disasters (2008)

Prevention: Strengthening the

Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP)

Preparedness:

Mobile telehealth services

, vaccination R&D, and hospital readiness.

Response: Lockdowns, containment zones, and public health drives.

Long-term Measures: Epidemiological surveys and infrastructure to counter future

outbreaks, ensuring readiness against

bioterrorism threats

Industrial and Chemical Disasters

Definition

An

accidental or uncontrolled

release of toxic substances from industrial settings poses risks to public health and the
environment.

It involves handling of hazardous chemicals (HAZCHEM) in manufacturing, storage, or

transport.

Examples

Bhopal Gas Disaster (1984): Toxic methyl isocyanate release.

Vishakhapatnam Styrene Leak (2020): Affected nearby residential areas.

Industrial fires, such as the

Mundka Fire (Delhi, 2022)

or explosions (e.g., ammunition factories).

Causes

Safety System Failures due to technical or managerial lapses.

Natural Calamities damaging plant infrastructure.

Transport Accidents involving chemicals.

Hazardous Waste Disposal errors.

Deliberate Acts (sabotage, terrorism).

NDMA Guidelines (2007)

Management of Chemical Accidents: Regular safety audits, risk assessments, and robust
design.

Preparedness: Education, training, public awareness, and medical readiness.

R&D: Advanced detection systems for chemical leaks.

Response & Relief: Evacuation, containment of leaks, and decontamination efforts.

Transport Accident Management: Specialized teams and protocols for road/rail accidents.

Liability & Compensation: Mechanisms for immediate victim relief.

Role of Civil Society: Collaboration with the private sector for industrial safety compliance.

Other Measures

National Action Plan on Chemical Industrial Disaster Management (2015)

Relevant Legislation: Factories Act (1948), Environment Protection Act (1986), Public
Liability Insurance Act (1991).

Nuclear Disasters

Definition

Release of

radioactive material

from nuclear installations or explosions, harmful to health and the environment.

Radiological events may not involve full nuclear detonation but still pose radiation hazards.

Examples

Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine)

Fukushima (2011, Japan) following an earthquake and tsunami.

Indian Nuclear Installations

Spread across multiple states (e.g.,

Tarapur

in Maharashtra,

Kudankulam

in Tamil Nadu).

Historically minor incidents, but no large-scale disaster recorded.

NDMA Guidelines

Prevention: Strict compliance with nuclear safety regulations and robust reactor design.

Mitigation: Periodic safety drills, multiple containment systems, and backup cooling.

Preparedness: Radiation monitoring devices, trained staff, and emergency health facilities.

Response & Relief: Evacuation strategies, decontamination protocols, and public advisories.

Rehabilitation & Recovery: Long-term environmental monitoring and medical provisions

for radiation-related ailments.

Oil Spills

Definition

Discharge of

crude oil or refined petroleum

products into marine or freshwater systems.

It often arises from tanker accidents, rigs, or pipeline leaks, causing severe ecological and
socioeconomic damage.
Examples

Deepwater Horizon (2010, Gulf of Mexico): Massive spill by British Petroleum.

Ennore Oil Spill (2017, 2023) near Chennai’s port region.

Environmental & Economic Impacts

Coating marine fauna and flora, leading to fish mortality and habitat loss.

Tainting seafood supply and impacting fishing communities.

Longer-term pollution of coastal regions, beach tourism, and marine ecosystems.

Cleanup/Remediation Techniques

Natural Sorbents: Straw, peat moss, and sawdust to absorb oil.

Controlled Burning: Typically limited to smaller areas.

Bioremediation: Deploying oil-eating bacteria (e.g.,

Oil Zapper

Oleivorous S

).

Booms & Skimmers: Physical barriers and specialized vessels to contain and remove
surface slick.

Key Steps

National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (1996) under the Indian Coast Guard.

Merchant Shipping Act (1958) and

Environment Protection Act (1986)

enforce liability.

International Conventions:

SOLAS

(Safety of Life at Sea)

MARPOL

(Marine Pollution)

Bunker Convention

(2001) on compensation for bunker oil spills.

Stampedes

Definition

A crowd surges in a confined space when too many occupants move simultaneously in the
same direction.

It leads to chaotic pushing, resulting in falls, crushing, and injuries.

Examples

Tragedies at religious gatherings (e.g.,

Kumbh Mela

).

Hathras stampede

in Uttar Pradesh with significant casualties.

Temple stampede at Mandhar Devi, Satara (Maharashtra, 2005).

Factors

Structural Issues: Bridge collapses (e.g.,

Morbi bridge, 2022

).

Fire Outbreaks: Sudden panic (e.g.,

Uphaar Cinema Fire, 1997

).

Crowd Behavior: Emotional triggers at large-scale gatherings.

Security Failures: Poor queue management.

Lack of Coordination: Multiple agencies are not synchronized.

NDMA Guidelines

Capacity Planning: Evaluate venue capacity, provide multiple routes, and create queue
complexes.

Crowd Behavior Analysis: Anticipate triggers for sudden rushes and train staff to manage
flow.

Crowd Control: Deploy high-visibility personnel and collaborate with community

stakeholders.

Risk Analysis & Preparedness: Conduct mock drills for emergency scenarios, install CCTV,
and disseminate accurate information.

Safety & Security: Ensure adequate medical services, designate movement corridors, and
limit private vehicles.

POST INDEPENDENCE:

CLASS 1
INTEGRATION OF INDIA: (1:09 PM)

2 perspectives:

I. Of the State's people (Of nation): Princely states, 22% Population, and 37% Territory.

II. Of Territory and States (Country): Organizations that rule the country and its people (British
India + 571 princely states + French + Portugal) = 574, 78% Population and 67% Territory.

Integration of the State's people with the rest of India contributed to the integration of Princely
states, as the State's people strengthened Sardar Patel when negotiations failed.
They gave legitimacy, or else they accused of empire-building since the British narrative was
that India was not a nation.

In fact, the State's people led the foundation of integration in the Quit India Movement (QIM)
in 1942.

Therefore, the integration of nations preceded and aided the integration of Princely states

CONCEPT : (1:26 PM)

British India 571 Princely States

Indian National Movement (INM) State's People Movement.

Indian National Congress (INC) 1885:

1920 Nagpur (Provincial Congress Committees were set up).

(***Polity @India).

All India State People Congress, and before and after 1929, State People Committees were set
up.

(***Polity@USA).

Leaders: Moderates, Extremists, Revolutionaries, Mahatma Gandhi, Bose, Nehru, Patel.

Leaders: Mahatma Gandhi, Bose, Nehru, Patel.

Goals:
Limited Self Govt until 1906.

From Limited Self Govt to Self Govt (1906-1928).

Dominion Status (1928-29).

Purna Swaraj (1929).

1st movement: Swadeshi Movement: 1905-11.

Goals:

1938: INC declared Purna Swaraj, the goal for All India.

1st movement: QIM(1942-45).

On 15th August 1947: Dominion status.

Each 565 PS:

Legally, it had the right to be a fully independent country.

But decided to join India: Got Purna Swaraj on 26th Jan 1950.
SPC or Praja Mandal was an organization set up by the people of the Princely States for their
grievances, democratic reforms, and integration with India.

Initially main active centers: Hyderabad, Mysore, Gujarat.

RELATIONSHIP WITH INC: (2:10 PM)

1. 1920 Nagpur Session:

INC opened membership for the State's people.

However, they were not allowed to engage in any political activity in the name of INC, because
of -

Absence of colonial rule, as the ruler was Indian.

Therefore, the demand for democracy is from the Indian ruler, and no anti-british agenda is
available, since the goal is not equal to Purna Swaraj.

The state's People are not trained in modern politics, as there is no significant history of INM in
565 PS (Princely States).

INC had no presence in 565 PS, therefore, it wouldn't be able to be protected if it was
repression by the Indian ruler.

2. In 1927, All India State's People's Congress (AISPC) was set up.

3. 1929 Lahore Session of INC.

(President: Nehru).

Declared the goal of INC as Purna Swaraj and stated that the people of the states could not be
excluded from INM, but the 1920 stand was maintained).

(*** Narrative began but not action)

4. 1937-39, 28 months rule of INC in Provinces.

The prestige of INC increased, and the State's people were motivated to set up SPCs and
strengthen existing SPCs.

5. 1938, Haripura Session of INC:

(Netaji Bose: President).

The stand of 1920 was maintained but INC declared that the states are an integral part of India,
and Poorna Swaraj is the goal for the whole of India.

1939, Tripuri Session:

(With Netaji Bose as Presient).

INC finally changed the 1920 stand and declared that the people of the states would be part of
the future INC movement.

(*** Now INC truly All India Organisation).

7. Then in 1939, the Ludhiana session of AISPC:

Nehru was chosen as President.

(***Coordination between INC and AISPC).

8. QIM 1942, was the 1st movement, where the State's people participated and demanded the
British to quit India, democracy in 565 PS, and integration with India.

9. April 1948: AISPC merged into INC.

II. MERGER/INTEGRATION OF TERRITORIES AND STATES: (2:59 PM)

1. Status on 3rd June 1947, when the Mountbatten Plan was finalized.

a) India: British India, ruled by the British.

571 Princely states ruled by the princes but under British sovereignty.

Pondicherry, Chandernagore under France.

Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadar & Nagar Haveli under the Portugal.

b) European colonial powers were weak due to WWI (1914-18).

Great Depression, 1929

WWII (1939-45).

These were the 3 devastating events in 3 decades.

They wanted to preserve their colonies for economic recovery.

c) French territories merged into India, via negotiations in 1954.

France had lost the 1st Indo-China War (1946-54) despite USA's support and Laos, Vietnam and
Cambodia became independent.

France realized that decolonization was inevitable.

d) Goa (Since 1510), Daman and Diu (since 1546), and Dadar and Nagar Haveli (since 1783) with
the Portuguese.

There was a people's movement for independence and India intervened via Operation Vijay, in
1961 when a popular movement demanded help

The Portuguese surrendered without much fight.

2. 565 PS:

a) Instrument of accession (IOA):

Had legal bases in Section 6 of the GOI Act 1935 that gave Defence, Communication, and
Foreign Affairs to the Union govt, while the rest subjects remained with the Prince.

Also, only Prince's signature is valid for IOA to be valid.

Therefore IOA led to accession to India only in 3 subjects.

b) Merger agreement:

Was signed after signing IOA, and once signed then all subjects are to be with the Union Govt,
until decided by the Constitution of India (COI).

That decided the seventh schedule.

c) As per the Cabinet Mission Plan 1946, and Indian Independence Act 1947:

Paramountcy was not to be transferred to any GOI unless the IOA was signed.

As per the Indian Independence Act, of July 1947, paramountcy is to come to an end on the
appointed day which is the 15th of August.

Net legal status: Legally each PS had the right to be a fully independent country.

However, the 3rd June Plan or Mountbatten Plan promised that unofficially there wouldn't be
any right of independence to Prince/PS.

3. STATE'S DEPARTMENT AND STRATEGY OF PATEL: (3:40 PM)

a) The primary role of the management of partition and relations with 565 PS was with the
newly created state's dept, set up on 13th June 1947.

It had 2 wings: 1 each for India and Pakistan.

Sardar Patel was minister, and V P Menon was secretary of the Indian wing.

For 565 PS, which fell within the Indian mainland after the partition.

b) Option was given to exceed by signing IOA, and persuasion to fully merge via merger
agreement.

If the Prince did not agree, then the option was given to sign only IOA.

And if Prince still did not agree then the implied threat of anarchy that is India won't be able to
control people after 15th August.

c) Also Ptael brought Mountbatten Plan on board, who made a speech to Narendra Mandal,
chamber of princes (Set up by GOI Act 1919) to convince princes to sign IOA, as Britain wouldn't
be able to protect them after the lapse of paramountcy.

Also, signing an IOA would preserve their status.

d) Therefore, most princes signed the IOA and Merger agreement within 3 weeks of the state's
dept formation on 13th June 1947.

e) However Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, Jodhpur + Hyderabad, Junagarh, and J&K did not
immediately sign IOA.

Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur signed before 15th August.

Hyderabad, Junagarh, and J&K signed after 15th August.

f) Also, Pakistan was luring princes with blank cheques of autonomy, especially the border
states.

4. Bhopal:

The majority of the population: is Hindu.

Ruler: Muslim that is Nawab Hamidullah Khan, who resisted signing IOA.

Pressure by Patel and Communists led to the signing of the IOA before 15th August.
5. Travancore:

a) King/Prince = Maharaja Thirunal.

But the real power centre was Deewan, C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, who argued that Travancore
would follow the USA's model of voluntary union, and therefore would stay independent.

b) Punnapara Vayalar Movement since October 1946 under C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, with the
method of armed struggle by the Peasants and workers for their rights, and also for uniting with
India.

Now they gave the slogan " Go into the American Sea with your American Model".

c) June 1947: Travancore declared independence.

d) July 1947: Attack on the life of C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, who now fled away and Maharaja
signed IOA.

6. Manipur:

a) On 11th August 1947, Maharaja Bodh Chandra signed an IOA, on assurance of autonomy.

1st elections in Independent India were in Manipur, in June 1948, after public pressure for
democracy.

Therefore, a constitutional monarchy with a popular legislative assembly setup.

SPC was in favor of signing the Merger agreement but other parties were not.

GOI convinced Maharaja to sign a Merger agreement but he did not consult LA.

This contributed to separatism later.

7. Jodhpur:

It was important because it had a border with Pakistan through pressure by Patel on the young
king led to the signing of the IOA before 15th August.

CLASS 2
INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES: (1:10 PM)
HYDERABAD:

Indian mainland's largest PS, 75% of the population is Hindu and the ruler was Nizam Mir
Osman Ali.

The real ruler was Qasim Rizvi who was an advisor to Nizam and an anti-Hindu Radical who
threatened the security of Hindus.

MIM was a radical political party like the Muslim League in 1906.

Rizvi and MIM both opposed accession to India.

Also, the rule of Nizam was unjust and unpopular.

25% of the Muslim population dominated all bureaucratic posts.

The Hyderabad SPC was one of the first SPCs.

On 11th June 1947 (13th June- states department and 3rd June- MTB plan), Hyderabad
declared independence.

GOI (Govt of India) offered autonomy and special status.

20000 personal troops and was rejected by Nizam.

The people's movement began with the SPC (States Peoples Congress) and Congress where the
students, women, and workers participated.

In response, Nizam unleashed violence by Razakars, his private army. (Why Private army?-
When that was ended in 1798, subordinate alliance. Thank you, Wellesley, else the US Civil War
1861-65 like the war for integration would have happened in India).

Negotiations led to the Standstill Agreement between GOI and Hyderabad in November 1947.

Violence by Razakars continued.

In Sept 1948, the Indian Army entered Hyderabad in Operation Polo/ Caterpillar.

Kasim Rizvi was imprisoned until 1957 and then sent to Pakistan.

MIM was banned and Hyderabad was merged with Nizam as governor.

JUNAGARH:
Nawab was Mohabbat Khan.

Junagarh shared no border with Pakistan.

It was a small state on the Saurashtra coast surrounded by Indian territory.

The majority population was Hindu and wanted integration into secular India.

Mohabbat announced accession to Pakistan and Shah Nawaz Bhutto of ML 1906 joined as PM
in the government of the state.

Now a popular movement began that forced the Nawab to flee with his dogs.

Now, Bhutto requested military help from Pakistan.

But Jinnah refused as his main focus was J and K and Junagarh was only a bargaining chip.

The Indian army entered Junagarh and a Plebiscite in 1948 led to a merger with India.

A plebiscite was conducted since the signing authority for accession i.e. Nawab was unavailable
and therefore the will of the people was demonstrated.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR: (1:50 PM)

The 2 nation theory was applied only in British India's [artition and not to the whole of India.

The legal authority on accession was only Maharaja Hari Singh who signed IOA with India on
26th Oct 1947.

The constituent Assembly of J and K ratified accession to India in 1954 and later Indira-Sheikh
Agreement of 1974 reiterated that accession of J and K to India is irrevocable.

Maharaja Hari Singh wanted independence.

India and Pakistan both desired J and K.

Sheikh Abdulah was a popular leader who was not in favour of joining Pakistan, had good
relations with Nehru, and was anti-monarchy pro-democracy, and pro-socialist.

He wanted land redistribution in favour of the poor masses.

Muslims were in the majority and were poor ryots.

Under the economic operation of Zamindars, mostly Hindus, there was no religion-based
oppression of Muslims under the Hindu Raja.

1946- Sheikh Abdullah began Kashmiri Chodo Andolan against the monarchy.

Hari Singh offered a standstill agreement to India and Pakistan because he wanted the
movement of people and goods in and out of landlocked J and K.

Pakistan signed but India did not which made Jinnah anxious.

Oct 1947- Anxious Pakistan applied an economic blockade on J and K to pressure J and K to sign
IOA.

Also on Oct 22, 1947, Pashtun tribesmen or raiders from NWFP invaded J and K with the
support of Pakistan's military (link concept of plausible deniability).

Hari Singh sought Indian help but India gave 2 conditions for signing the IOA and for making
Sheikh Abdullah head of administration.

Both met and now the India-Pak war began (Oct 1947-Dec 1948).

But before the Pakistanis could be pushed back completely, MTB convinced Nehru to take the
issue to the UN (1945).

December 1948- Ceasefire was signed.

July 1949- A ceasefire line decided by a UNSC resolution.

Therefore POK came to exist and a UN mission was set up to monitor the ceasefire line.

POK = Gilgit-Baltistan and Azaad J and K.

1951- UNSC resolution called for a Plebiscite but condition that Pakistan withdraws from POK
first.

1951- Constituent Assembly of J and K met and 1954-it ratified accession to India and by 1956
drafted the constitution of J and K.

1948 onwards- The US and Britain sided with Pakistan in UNSC as Pakistan joined the capitalist
bloc in the Cold War.

Ex-Pakistan joined SEATO 1954 and the Baghdad Pact 1955 which were NATO 1949-like
defensive alliances for South East Asia and the Middle East respectively.
Therefore India felt cheated and today against third-party intervention in its bilateral disputes,
unless mutually agreed to.

REORGANIZATION OF STATES: (2:58 PM):

Concept:

The goal is stability and sustainability- political, economic, and socio-cultural, and geography
and history have a huge impact on these factors.

Factors to take into account for Reorganization:

Equitable distribution of natural resources i.e. factors of quantity, quality, and diversity of
resources. (No overdependence on a single resource like in Africa)

Rivers- Especially when significant agrarian economy.

Agricultural productivity and infra/ canals.

Industrial/ Service sector hubs:- Ex- Gujrat-Maharashtra reorganization had the issue of
Bombay and Telangana and Andra had the issue of Hyderabad because these hubs determine
the tax revenue of the government, job creation potential, and GDP.

Further, a poor province would be dependent on the centre hurting the federal spirit.

Ex- 2022-23, Hyderabad income per year was 91000 crores for state government.

All factors of production fall within a state or not. Ex- Assam had crude oil and refineries were in
the rest of India.

North East reorganization was resisted due to low population density as then division into
multiple provinces could hurt the economy.

Geographic contiguity- People-to-people interaction, movement of goods, and cultural

homogeneity that impacts political and economic stability.

Access to Sea- Impacts nature and size of the economy, seaports, and international trade.

Hence, if possible, a landlocked state should be prevented.

International border- Border states should have autonomy and stability otherwise the
neighbours can exploit internal vulnerabilities.
Ex- Punjab as a Sikh majority state wasn't created until 1966.

Also, if an economically poor border province then, it can lead to poor law and order as that is a
state subject.

Domestic interstate trade- Earlier in the absence of GST, there existed trade barriers.

With GST, having smaller states now won't hurt domestic trade.

Impact of federalism- Smaller states are dependent on the center financially which hurts
federalism.

Also, a small state would mean fewer seats in Parliament and hence, less influence per state at
the centre.

Cultural homogeneity as the basis of reorganization allows for fulfilling the aspirations of
subcultures.

Ex- The Bengal partition of 1905 hurt these aspirations as linguistic homogeneity was ignored.

Plus creation of Bangladesh in 1971 was also due to such aspirations.

Also, the economic aspirations of 1 subculture can be fulfilled.

In the undivided Madras presidency, Tamils were more Western-educated and, therefore
dominated government jobs.

Linguistic reorganization post-independence fulfilled the economic aspirations of people from

other linguistic backgrounds i.e. Kannada, telegu, and Malayalam.

The economic cost of building new capital and civil service reorganization.

Ex-27000 cr needed for new capital for Andhra after Telangana.

Historical positives/ negatives: (4:00 PM)

Ex- The Telangana region ruled by Nizam as part of Hyderabad's princely state was
underdeveloped compared to Telegu areas of Madras presidency ruled by the British.

Therefore wanted their state of Telangana.

The tribal state of Jharkhand was the result of a 50-year-old demand met in 2000.
Adopting a cautious step-by-step approach to the Reorganization of the state (not territory) to
ensure stability i.e. in step 1, a UT is created like Tripura, and once the confidence of stability-
political, economic, and social, full statehood is given.

Refer to the handout, especially for the first paragraph and table of Northeast Reorganization.

CLASS 3
TRIBAL INTEGRATION (5:03 PM)

Challenges faced by tribals during the colonial period:

i) The Indian Forest Act classified land into: Reserved and protected forests.

It restricted tribal access to forests for hunting, grazing, and collecting minor forest produce,
leading to livelihood loss.

ii) Banned the practice of jhum cultivation.

iii) Land acquisition.

iv) Missionary activities.

v) Forced labor.

Challenges faced during the integration:

i) Policy of assimilation

ii) Policy of isolation

Steps taken for tribals:

Panchsheel policy

Recent schemes:

i) PM Van Dhan Yojana:

Focuses on creating Van Dhan Kendras for value addition, branding, and marketing of tribal
produce.

Empower tribals to become entrepreneurs.

ii) MSP for MFP:

Provides fair prices for minor forest produce collected by tribals.

Supports tribal livelihoods by ensuring market linkages and MSP.

iii) Tribal SHGs

Gather MFP.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS RELATED TO TRIBAL POPULATION (6:03 PM)

Article 366: Definitions: 366(25) defines STs as Tribes or Tribal communities as defined in

Art 342.

Article 342: Scheduled Tribes: Those tribes or Tribal communities that are in notification

issued by the President, and Parliament may include or exclude any tribe from this notification.

Art 244A: Formation of Autonomous state comprising certain tribal areas in Assam

and creation of local legislature or Council of Ministers or both (*Meghalaya was

created as an autonomous state within Assam)

Art 243D: Reservation of seats for SC & ST in Panchayats.

Art 243T: Reservation of seats for SC & ST in Municipalities.

TYPES OF RIGHTS FOR TRIBAL COMMUNITIES (6:34 PM)

I) Individual:

Right to Property under the FRA, 2006.

II) Community level:

i) General autonomy:

PESA 1996 created Gram Sabha for VIth Schedule areas.

Forest Rights Act empowered Gram Sabha in the case of land acquisition.

ii) Right to property:

Minor Forest Produce

iii) Cultural rights:

Under the FRA.

SC judgment related to Vedanta vs. tribal e-mining in Niyamgiri Hills.

INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS (7:40 PM)

India was the first to recognize the PRC in 1949.

India also believed that due to the common past of colonialism and similar ideologies of
communism and socialism, there could be good relations and cooperation for development.

Disputes arose in 1950 when China annexed Tibet and now border disputes between Aksai
China and NEFA started.

The India and China border is 3488 km long.

Western Sector:

I) Johnson-Ardagh Line (1897):

Johnson was surveyed and recommended this line in 1865.

It was accepted by the British in 1897 on the recommendation of Ardagh (Head of British
Military Intelligence)

It puts Aksai Chin in India.

II) McCartney-McDonald Line (1899):

It put Aksai Chin in China and was proposed by British GoI by Claud McDonald to China.

But no response therefore the British reverted to the 1897 line which is there in all British
maps.

Eastern Sector:

i) McMahon Line:

It was finalized in the Shimla Agreement of 1914 between British and Tibet.

China was invited but did not attend.

This line puts NEFA in India (a UT with the province of Assam).

Post-1949, the PRC did not recognize the Johnson Line and McMahon Line and claimed Aksai
Chin and NEFA.

Patel wanted clarity while Nehru over-trusted China.

Nehru appointed KM Pannikar as ambassador to China and he reported that China's core
interest is trade across borders and hinterlands.

In 1954, Nehru signed the Treaty of Friendship based on Panchsheel Principles to guide future
relations.

Elaborate principles underline the idea of Vasudhaiv Kutumbkam.

Panchsheel Principles:

i) Mutual Respect for territorial integrity.

For example, today China may argue that Aksai Chin and NEFA are its territory. Therefore in
1962, they did not breach this principle.

ii) Mutual non-aggression:

For example, China may argue that India's forward policy of 1960-62 led to the war.

iii) Equality and mutual benefit:

Similarities with subordinate alliance and policy of paramountcy.

Therefore India-China relations won't be equal like that.

iv) Mutual non-interference in internal affairs:

For example, China may argue that India brought the Kashmir issue to the UNSC in 1949.

Therefore as a member, China may comment on Kashmir.

v) Peaceful coexistence:

India can be a supplier of services while China can be a leader in the industry.

However, the treaty did not give any clarity on Aksai Chin and NEFA while India recognized
Tibet as a part of China.

We reiterated in 2003 that Tibet's Autonomous Region is also a part of China.

(Compare it with the US- a superpower - supporting Taiwan).

Therefore India lost potential bargaining power.

CLASS 4
Previous Class Topic

The 1954 agreement between India and China and the context surrounding the early phase of
their diplomatic relations.

Sixth Point: 1956 – Refusal of Dalai Lama’s Asylum

In 1956, India declined to grant the Dalai Lama asylum, even on humanitarian grounds.

This decision reflected India’s desire to maintain cordial ties with China under the impression of
a “special relationship.”

Seventh Point: 1957 – Construction of the Aksai Chin–Xinjiang Road

In 1957, China completed a road connecting Aksai Chin with Xinjiang.

Aksai Chin’s strategic importance stemmed from its location and the potential for troop and
armored vehicle movement.

India learned about this only after Chinese forces were already in control, causing a strong
political outcry.

China’s proposal came a month later, suggesting India accept Aksai Chin as Chinese territory in
exchange for China’s recognition of the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) as part of India.

Prime Minister Nehru presented this suggestion in Parliament, leading to a major uproar.

Eighth Point: Nehru’s Proposal and Political Fallout

Nehru argued that Aksai Chin was barren (“nothing grows there”), implying it could be traded
away.

Mahavir Tyagi’s retort, using the metaphor of a bald scalp, highlighted strong opposition in
Parliament.

The widespread disapproval forced Nehru to end negotiations on these terms.

Ninth Point: 1959 – Dalai Lama’s Asylum and Panchsheel Considerations

In 1959, the Dalai Lama received asylum in India, yet political activities by Tibetans were
disallowed.

This policy continues, partly backed by the 1954 Panchsheel Treaty that affirms Tibet as part of
China.

India remains cautious in allowing any Tibetan political activities within its borders.

Tenth Point: 1960–1962 – Forward Policy

Between 1960 and 1962, India adopted the “Forward Policy”, establishing small military posts
beyond the McMahon Line to counter Chinese incursions in Aksai Chin.

China responded with its own forward deployment, creating multiple skirmishes across
disputed areas.

These altercations resembled more recent incidents lacking advanced weapon engagement.

Eleventh Point: Framework Question on 1962 Border Dispute

Examinations of the India–China border dispute often focus on how unresolved boundaries and
diplomatic failures culminated in open conflict.
Twelfth Point: Multiple Factors in the 1962 War

12.1 Unsettled Border and Rising Tensions

Border disagreements over Aksai Chin heightened tensions.

Diplomatic approaches faltered, especially over road construction and subsequent failed
negotiations.

India’s and China’s forward policies further provoked one another.

12.2 Sino-Soviet Split and India–USSR Proximity

China’s ties with the USSR deteriorated post-1953 due to ideological disagreements under
Nikita Khrushchev’s leadership.

Mao opposed the USSR’s “peaceful coexistence” with capitalist countries and certain reformist
economic measures.

China feared being encircled by the USSR to its north and India in the south, prompting
aggressive posturing.

The Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 preoccupied global powers, creating a window for
China’s offensive.

China aimed to seize Aksai Chin while withdrawing from NEFA to claim it was merely attaining
what was diplomatically proposed.

12.3 Domestic Challenges in China (Great Leap Forward)

From 1958 to 1976, Mao pursued the Great Leap Forward, emphasizing farming (agrarian
communism) over heavy industry.

The policy caused economic setbacks and, combined with droughts, lowered GDP growth.

Facing internal criticism, Mao resorted to external aggression to unify domestic opinion and
sideline detractors.

Going to war in 1962 helped shift focus away from agricultural failures and bolstered Mao’s
authority.

Thirteenth Point: Reasons for India’s Defeat in 1962

Political Interference in Military Strategy: Operational decisions became subject to political

considerations, undermining effectiveness.
Poor Political Leadership in Planning: There was an assumption that China would not attack or
that any conflict would escalate into a larger global war.

Underestimation of China’s Capabilities: Indian leaders believed China would avoid hostilities;
Defense Minister V.K. Krishna Menon prioritized threats from Pakistan over China.

Military Neglect Post-1947: Resource constraints and reliance on nonviolence led to inadequate
modernization.

Foreign Powers Distracted: No guaranteed assistance from major states, partly due to India’s
Non-Aligned stance, gave China greater confidence.

Fourteenth Point: Outcome of the 1962 War

14.1 Duration and Territory Control

The war lasted about a month.

China unilaterally declared a ceasefire and withdrew from NEFA but retained Aksai Chin.

Faced with potential UN sanctions, China portrayed itself as reasonable by taking only what it
had claimed earlier.

14.2 Establishment of the Line of Actual Control (LAC)

The 1962 conflict formalized the LAC, dividing positions held by Indian and Chinese forces.

The LAC remains a disputed demarcation rather than a legally recognized international border.

Crossing or altering a recognized international border typically triggers a stronger international

response than movements along a contested line.

14.3 Political Ramifications in India

India’s prestige was severely damaged, and Prime Minister Nehru faced a no-confidence
motion.

Doubts over earlier diplomatic and defense policies strained Nehru’s leadership.

14.4 Economic Consequences and Five-Year Plans

The Third Five-Year Plan (1961–1966) suffered due to war costs and the droughts of 1962–
1963.
With scarce resources, funds for health, education, and development were diverted to military
needs.

Subsequent instability left India vulnerable, and further regional tensions arose in later years.

Post-1962 India–China Border Talks

General Background (1976 Onwards)

Relations improved moderately after Mao’s tenure ended in 1976.

Diplomatic initiatives in the 1980s aimed to normalize ties, though sporadic incidents like the
1987 Sumdorong Chu crisis persisted.

1988: Joint Working Group (JWG)

India and China initiated a JWG to address border issues.

Senior bureaucrats convene under the JWG to find pragmatic solutions.

1993 and 1996 Agreements

1993: Agreement on maintaining peace along the LAC, reducing armed engagements.

1996: Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs) in military fields, including regular commander-

level meetings and joint patrols.

Advance intimation of patrols helps avoid accidental confrontations.

Cultural exchanges and sports events were introduced to build trust.

Post-2003 Developments

After 14 rounds of JWG talks, two Special Representatives were appointed to seek a political
settlement.

Negotiations follow a three-stage path:

Stage 1: Establish broad guiding principles.

Stage 2: Develop a framework specifying how to draw actual boundaries.

Stage 3: Demarcate on maps and on the ground.

Stage 1 concluded in 2005 with broad political parameters.

2005 – Guidelines and Parameters

Both sides agreed to solve disputes peacefully and avoid jeopardizing other ties, such as trade.

Mutual acceptance is key, ensuring that no unilateral claims can be imposed.

A comprehensive settlement, though prolonged, is aimed at full clarity over demarcations.

Flexibility remains crucial, requiring each side to accommodate strategic and national interests.

Historical documentation (maps, treaties, traveler records) can guide final demarcation.

Maintenance of peace along the LAC is essential until a final resolution is achieved.

Strategies like China’s renaming of certain areas or stapled visas to residents of disputed
regions illustrate attempts to strengthen territorial claims.

Transition to the Shastri Era (1964–1966) and the 1965 War

Political and Economic Context

After Prime Minister Nehru’s death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri became Prime Minister with
backing from powerful regional Congress leaders (the “Syndicates”).

Economic stress followed the failure of the Third Five-Year Plan, exacerbated by war costs and
droughts.

Factionalism and self-doubt emerged, though Shastri soon demonstrated resolve.

Pakistan’s Confidence Post-1962

India’s recent defeat by China and resource shortcomings encouraged Pakistan to view India as
vulnerable.

Western arms supplies (such as Patton tanks) bolstered Pakistan’s military optimism.

Pakistan anticipated support from China due to its 1963 transfer of the Shaksgam tract and
from the US through military pacts (SEATO, CENTO).

India’s Non-Aligned Movement stance implied no guaranteed external assistance.

Rann of Kutch Clash

Looking to test India’s readiness, Pakistan initiated hostilities in the Rann of Kutch (a marshy
territory).

India, not expecting a large-scale conflict there, had limited defense mobilization in the swampy
region.
The UK served as mediator, leading to arbitration: out of Pakistan’s claim of 9,100 sq. km, only
910 sq. km were awarded.

India accepted the tribunal ruling, illustrating willingness to adhere to mutually agreed
mediation when advantageous.

Operation Gibraltar (August 1965)

Approximately 40,000 armed infiltrators were sent into Jammu and Kashmir, aiming to trigger a
civilian uprising.

Contrary to expectations, local populations provided intelligence to Indian forces, preventing

the large-scale rebellion Pakistan sought.

The planned infiltration failed, revealing that only a small minority in J&K favored joining
Pakistan.

CLASS 5
Previous Class Topic

Operation Gibraltar -

an infiltration plan by Pakistan leading up to the 1965 conflict.

The 1965 War

Operation Grand Slam

Initiated by Pakistan to target Akhnoor, a crucial link between Jammu & Kashmir and the rest of
India.

Aimed to sever Indian supply routes in Jammu & Kashmir while infiltrators operated internally.

Launched on September 4, 1965, with the primary goal of capturing the Akhnoor area.

Lal Bahadur Shastri’s Leadership

Critics labeled his stance as indecisive; however, he described it as strategic silence.

Chosen strategy: Open the Punjab front to divert Pakistani forces from Jammu & Kashmir.

Risked international sanctions and potential US or Chinese involvement, but prioritized

strategic requirements given India’s weak economy.
International Context (1965)

The US under President Johnson did not intervene, primarily due to its involvement in the
Vietnam War (1961–1975).

The USSR did not provide direct military support but warned China against assisting Pakistan,
preventing Chinese interference.

India performed more effectively, capturing about 1,920 sq km, compared to Pakistan’s 540 sq
km.

India’s capture of the Haji Pir Pass was strategically beneficial but was returned later.

Outcome and the Tashkent Agreement (1966)

Hostilities ended with both sides reverting to the

status quo ante

, making the war seem inconclusive.

Territories like Haji Pir were returned to Pakistan under the Tashkent Agreement.

Heavy expenditure for both nations, with no resolution of underlying disputes.

Pakistan’s reliance on Patton tanks failed; Indian forces, notably Abdul Hamid, destroyed many
enemy tanks.

Lal Bahadur Shastri passed away in Tashkent in January 1966, under circumstances that remain
speculative.

Food Security Emphasis After 1965

US PL-480 Crisis

The US halted PL-480 food grain supplies after India initially declined a ceasefire.

Forced India to focus on agricultural self-sufficiency.

Lal Bahadur Shastri promoted the slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan.”

Initiatives Toward Self-Reliance

Encouraged kitchen gardens and fasting once a week to raise awareness about food shortages.
These measures fostered public consciousness, pressuring politicians to prioritize agricultural
reforms.

Contributed to policy changes leading to the Green Revolution (1967–1977), boosting food
production significantly.

Comparison to China

China’s Great Leap Forward (1958) proactively emphasized agricultural development.

India’s steps were often reactive, prompted by crises like the PL-480 cutoff and the 1991
economic situation.

Despite a reactive approach, India achieved food security by 1977, on par with China’s
advances.

Indira Gandhi’s Ascendancy (Post-1966)

The Early Phase

Became Prime Minister in 1966 after Shastri’s death.

Initially underestimated due to gender and perceived inexperience.

Faced challenges from senior Congress leaders (the “syndicates”).

Congress Split (1969)

Ideological rifts over socialist vs. capitalist orientations led to a formal party split.

Indira Gandhi favored bank nationalization and redistribution policies, aligning more with the
USSR.

The “syndicates” leaned toward lighter state intervention and closer ties with the West.

Party elders’ attempts to limit Indira’s authority failed, and she retained strong popular
support.

1971 Elections

The Congress dissolved the Lok Sabha a year early, seeking a stronger mandate.

Opposition groups campaigned with “Indira Hatao,” while Indira’s slogan “Garibi Hatao”
resonated with the masses.
Her victory secured a robust majority, enabling reforms like bank nationalization and abolition
of privy purses.

Strengthened her leadership, allowing decisive domestic and foreign policy actions.

Bangladesh Liberation War (1971)

Background and Grievances in East Pakistan

Pakistan’s West and East were geographically and politically separated, with power centered in
the West.

Economic and cultural discrimination against Bengalis in the East fueled discontent.

Urdu was imposed, undermining Bengali language rights.

Jute export revenue from East Pakistan funded West Pakistan’s development, leaving the East
impoverished.

Inadequate relief for disasters like the 1970 Bhola cyclone intensified public anger.

Political Tensions and Election Results

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League (AL) won a majority in the 1970 elections.

West Pakistani leadership blocked the AL from forming the government.

Refusal to convene Parliament led to widespread civil disobedience in the East.

Operation Searchlight (March 1971) involved a brutal crackdown by the Pakistani army, causing
massive civilian deaths and refugee flows into India.

India’s Diplomatic and Military Response

Faced with a refugee crisis and human rights concerns, India covertly supported the Mukti
Bahini.

Delayed direct intervention until winter to ensure favorable conditions and avoid appearing
aggressive.

Signed the

Treaty of Friendship, Peace, and Cooperation

with the USSR (August 1971) to deter Chinese or US interference.

Pakistan preemptively attacked India on December 3, 1971, weakening its diplomatic position.

Role of Major Powers

The USSR vetoed UN Security Council resolutions pushing for an early ceasefire, allowing India
time for military gains.

China, having strained ties with the USSR, refrained from direct involvement.

The US sent its 7th Fleet to the Bay of Bengal but was counterbalanced by Soviet naval support.

Outcome of the 1971 War

The war ended in 13 days, with 93,000 Pakistani soldiers surrendering on December 16, 1971,
in Dhaka.

Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation, challenging Pakistan’s two-nation theory.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman embraced four guiding principles: Nationalism, Democracy, Secularism,
and Socialism.

Bangladesh’s creation improved India’s internal security by eliminating East Pakistan’s role in
northeastern insurgencies.

Post-War Developments in Jammu & Kashmir

Indira–Sheikh Agreement (1974)

Sheikh Abdullah, initially demanding greater autonomy, eventually agreed to the constitutional
framework akin to Article 370.

Accepted the accession to India as final and was reinstated as Chief Minister of Jammu &
Kashmir.

The Shimla Agreement (1972)

Key Purpose

Signed on July 2, 1972, between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto after the 1971 war.

Aimed to establish guidelines for peaceful coexistence and mutual respect, extending beyond
simple territorial exchanges.

Main Provisions

Territorial integrity, national unity, and political independence as paramount principles.

Sovereign equality, requiring both nations to treat each other as equals.

Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, reducing proxy conflicts.

Prevention of hostile propaganda, promoting moderation in media coverage.

Commitment to peaceful resolution of disputes through direct talks or agreed peaceful

methods.

Replacement of the 1949 Ceasefire Line with the

Line of Control (LoC)

, based on troop positions as of December 17, 1971.

Removal of UN oversight by making the LoC a bilateral matter, functioning as a de facto border.

Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs) to encourage cultural exchange and economic ties.

Significance for Future Relations

Reduced the scope for third-party intervention in the Kashmir dispute.

Shaped further diplomatic engagement between India and Pakistan.

Post-nuclearization, the Shimla Agreement’s principles served as a key reference point for
conflict avoidance.

CLASS 6
Previous Class Topic

The Shimla Agreement (1972)

was examined for its significance in India-Pakistan relations.

The Lahore Agreement (1999)

Signed due to Nuclear Context

India and Pakistan both became nuclear-armed states in 1998.

A message of responsible conduct was essential to reassure the global community and mitigate
fears of nuclear conflict.
SAARC Framework and EU Inspiration

Reinforcement of South Asian regional cooperation was deemed necessary.

The agreement aimed to encourage peace and stability, drawing parallels with the European
Union.

Emphasis on free trade, potential common currency, and shared policies without compromising
the sovereignty of regional states.

Temporary Reset and Underlying Deception

Pakistan’s leadership under Nawaz Sharif was negotiating this pact while another faction led by
Pervez Musharraf planned the Kargil conflict.

This breach of trust caused the agreement’s implementation to falter and highlighted the
fragility of bilateral ties.

Main Points of the Lahore Agreement (9.1–9.5)

9.1: Commitment to SAARC Goals

Inspired by models like the EU and ASEAN to foster a cooperative environment in South Asia.
Presented as a constructive vision akin to a boundary-free regional unity.

9.2: Preventing Nuclear War and Proliferation

Both countries acknowledged the responsibility of their nuclear status. A focus on universal
nuclear disarmament and avoiding escalation.

9.3: Condemnation of Terrorism

Strong rejection of terrorism in all forms. Prominent context involved the Kashmir situation of
the 1990s.
9.4: Commitment to Human Rights and Freedom

Each side linked human rights abuses to particular regions under the other’s control. India
highlighted issues in Balochistan, while Pakistan referenced Kashmir.

9.5: Implementation of the Shimla Agreement (1972)

Pledged to uphold the earlier agreement’s provisions in letter and spirit. Sought to build on past
bilateral frameworks to ensure lasting peace.

Observations on Decisive and Non-Decisive Wars

1962, 1965, and 1971 Wars

In 1962 and 1971, outcomes were more decisive in territorial or strategic terms.

The 1965 conflict ended in a return to pre-war positions under the Tashkent Agreement,
making it relatively indecisive.

By contrast, 1971 led to the creation of Bangladesh, altering the regional map.

Territorial and Human Costs

Each war impacted boundaries, war expenditures, and soldiers’ lives.

The creation of Bangladesh in 1971 was the most significant result, reshaping South Asian
geopolitics.

The JP Movement (1973–1980) and the Emergency (1975–1977)

Background and Causes

Economic Hardships and Unemployment

Post-1971, India struggled with war expenses from three major conflicts in one decade (1962,
1965, 1971). Failed Five-Year Plans, high inflation (peaking at around 22%), and widespread
joblessness fueled public discontent, especially among urban youth.

Emergence of the JP Movement

Led by Jayaprakash Narayan, often called the

JP Movement

or

Total Revolution

. Sought an overhaul of the “corrupt system,” demanding anti-corruption measures and fresh
elections. Protesters initially congregated in Bihar and Gujarat to uproot political corruption
and maladministration.

Corruption Cases and Political Turmoil

The Allahabad High Court judgment unseated the Prime Minister for electoral malpractices.
This verdict revitalized public protests, as leaders argued that corruption at the highest levels
invalidated the entire political structure.

The Declaration of Emergency (1975)

Legal Provision and Announcement

Declared under Article 352 based on “internal disturbance,” a vague term at the time.
Implemented overnight without broader cabinet consensus or extensive parliamentary debate.

Initial Public Reaction

Some rural sections supported the move due to promises of improved governance and pro-
poor schemes. Political arrests and press censorship, however, led to growing dissatisfaction in
urban centers.

Excesses and Controversies

Severe press censorship curtailed freedom of speech. Forced sterilization and slum-clearance
programs ordered by non-elected authorities caused widespread anger. Alleged misuse of
emergency powers overshadowed any initial administrative gains.

Constitutional Revisions

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976) substantially altered the Constitution, centralizing
power further. The 44th Amendment later refined the emergency provisions, limiting any
future declaration of internal emergency to “armed rebellion” and mandating written cabinet
approval.

Outcome

By 1977, elections were held, and the ruling party was voted out at the center for the first time.
The short-lived coalition that followed did not fully address inflation or unemployment, and
power returned to the previous leadership in 1980.

Assam Movement (1975–1985)

Historical Context

Long-Standing Immigration Issues

Partition of the subcontinent in 1947 and repeated conflicts in surrounding areas exacerbated
immigration into Assam. Geographic vulnerability and economic pull factors caused
demographic shifts that triggered fear of resource competition among locals.

Cultural and Economic Concerns

Land-grabbing, lower-wage labor by newcomers, and the struggle for cultural preservation
fueled resentment. Locals feared the erosion of linguistic and cultural identity as migrant
numbers grew.

Rising Activism

All Assam Student Union (AASU) Protests

Sparked after revelations of irregularities in voter lists, which included unauthorized settlers.
Initially peaceful demonstrations escalated over perceived government inaction. Economic
demands called for prioritizing local employment and development.

Shift to Militancy

Groups like ULFA (United Liberation Front of Assam), formed in 1979, advocated more radical
methods. ULFA aimed for an independent Assam, citing pre-colonial sovereignty before 1826.

The Assam Accords (1985)

Negotiations and Agreements

Brokered by the government to address AASU-led demands but excluded ULFA. Promises
included the establishment of industrial and educational institutions (e.g., IIT Guwahati), plus
cultural safeguards.

Foreigners Clause

Individuals settling before 1961 to receive full citizenship and voting rights. Those arriving
between 1961 and March 25, 1971, would get citizenship but no immediate voting rights. Post-
1971 arrivals to be deemed illegal and deported.

Economic and Cultural Measures

A second oil refinery, paper mill, and other projects to create jobs and mitigate long-term
resource conflicts. Archaeological restorations, scholarships, and support for Assamese writers
and artists to preserve regional heritage.

ULFA 1979

Armed Separatism

Advocated independence for Assam, citing pre-1826 sovereignty under the Ahom Kingdom.
Methods included armed insurgency and alliances with external facilitators. Ceasefire
agreements occurred, but internal splits left some factions still opposing peace efforts.

Impact of the Sixth Schedule

Autonomous councils under the Constitution’s Sixth Schedule offered administrative

devolution. Demands for further statehood (like Bodoland) persisted, though partial regional
autonomy was granted over time.
Punjab Crisis

Historical Underpinnings

Sikh State and Integration

Sikh Gurus opposed Mughal rule, leading to the Sikh kingdom under Maharaja Ranjit Singh until
British annexation in 1849. Punjab later joined the broader Indian National Movement, with
central figures like Lala Lajpat Rai and involvement in the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Post-Independence Demands

The Punjabi Suba movement (1947–1966) lobbied for a Punjabi-speaking state within India.
Initially declined by the State Reorganization Commission (1953), which saw limited linguistic
differentiation. Eventually, in 1966, Punjab and Haryana were separated, with Chandigarh
designated as a shared capital and Union Territory.

Political Dimensions

Akali Dal and Electoral Outcomes

Despite Punjab becoming a Sikh majority state, the Akali Dal often lacked a single-party
majority; coalitions were common. Varied Sikh communities, including sizeable Dalit Sikh
segments, supported other parties, weakening the Akali Dal’s electoral dominance.

Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973)

Drafted to unify Sikh voters and secure greater autonomy for Punjab. Demanded more power
for the state, drawing comparisons to Article 370-like provisions. Called for improved river
water sharing, federal constitutional amendments, and reinforced control over Chandigarh and
other Punjabi-speaking areas.

Sub-Nationalism and Broader Implications

Identity issues fueled demands that sometimes clashed with the notion of national unity. The
resolution contained references to “two nations in one state,” though the goal remained
autonomy rather than outright secession.

Emergency Era and Aftermath

Akali leaders were jailed during the 1975–1977 emergency but later formed coalition
governments. The Anandpur Sahib Resolution continued as a key manifesto, reflecting the
desire for federalism with stronger provincial control.

Additional Points of Clarification

Why the Supreme Court Did Not Invalidate the Emergency

The term “internal disturbance” lacked precise definition at the time, creating legal ambiguity.
Judicial composition and broader political factors also contributed to upholding the declaration.

Why India Did Not Annex Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (1971)

India’s central goal was the liberation of Bangladesh, officially framed as assistance to an
independent movement rather than territorial disputes. Major powers were already concerned
about India’s success in 1971, and further territorial changes risked escalating superpower
conflict.
Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

CLASS 7
Previous Class Topic

Brief discussion on

caste classification

and how perceptions of ritual “purity” or religious knowledge affect social hierarchy.

The Punjab Crisis and Bhindranwale

The Emergence of Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale

Originally named

Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale

, with “Jarnail” signifying “general” in keeping with the regional enthusiasm for military titles.

Known as a deeply religious scholar who led

Damdami Taksal

, a seminary imparting Sikh theological education.

Gained notability partly due to a confrontation in 1978 against the

Nirankari

sect, culminating in violent clashes and fatalities, which drew attention to his public persona.

Tensions with Sub-Sects

Certain Sikh sub-sects like

Naamdhari
and

Nirankari

accept living gurus, considered heretical by orthodox groups.

Disputes with Nirankaris magnified Bhindranwale’s stance, as he denounced their beliefs and fueled
tensions.

These conflicts highlighted underlying theological debates and community divisions, showcasing the
fragile balance of unity within the broader Sikh community.

Alleged Political Support

Allegations arose that

Sanjay Gandhi

and

Giani Zail Singh

tacitly encouraged Bhindranwale to factionalize the religious vote in Punjab, weakening the political
hold of the

Akali Dal

As Bhindranwale’s influence grew, he shifted from merely opposing other sects to engaging in broader
political maneuvering against established parties.

Over time, his followers engaged in extrajudicial violence, including killings of those seen as opposing his
vision, contributing to unrest and increasing his prominence.

The Farm Protests Connection

References were made to more recent farmers’ protests that some detractors labeled

Khalistani

A few protestors placed a Sikh religious flag at the Red Fort in Delhi, an act many saw as an isolated
incident rather than reflective of a widespread separatist movement.

Parallels were drawn to historical tensions in Punjab, although most demonstrators emphasized
economic demands and farmer rights over any separatist agenda.

The Caste Factor in Sikhism

Despite Sikhism’s religious assertion that no caste divides exist, social stratification prevails in practice.

Many from artisan and laborer backgrounds historically faced lower status within Sikh society.

Bhindranwale’s message of religious purification resonated with marginalized groups, offering them an
elevated sense of belonging through strict adherence to Sikh rituals.

The Green Revolution (1967–77) led to uneven economic gains, creating relative deprivation among
middle-class farmers (including

Jatts

), who gravitated toward a figure promising religious and social renewal.

Operation Blue Star

Build-Up to Operation Blue Star

Following rising violence and police inaction, Bhindranwale moved his headquarters to the

Golden Temple
in Amritsar.

He offered a parallel governance system, settling community disputes and creating an alternative justice
machinery.

The assassination of a high-ranking Sikh police officer, DIG AS Atwal, inside the Golden Temple in 1983,
along with other murders and robberies, severely weakened police morale.

The state’s reluctance to arrest Bhindranwale promptly, coupled with releasing him due to “lack of
evidence,” enhanced his aura of invincibility.

Key Events Leading Up to the Operation

Violent incidents targeted Hindus traveling by bus in segregated killings, prompting an exodus of Hindu
residents from Punjab.

Growing communal polarization led to the formation of Hindu Suraksha Sanghs, as the state appeared
unable to curb violence or protect citizens.

Bhindranwale took up residence in the

Akal Takht

(within the Golden Temple complex), a place of immense symbolic value.

Tensions surged as the Indian government feared Bhindranwale might formally proclaim an
independent

Khalistan

from within the sacred site.

The Operation Itself

Launched on June 3, 1984,

Operation Blue Star

involved the Indian Army entering the Golden Temple complex.

The mission was commanded by General Kuldip Singh Brar, with Bhindranwale’s supporters led by
figures such as General Shabeg.

Severe firefights and use of armor caused significant casualties on both sides and damage to the Akal
Takht.

Bhindranwale died in the operation; his body was treated with a measure of respect, and his family was
eventually allowed access.

Aftermath

Even moderate and apolitical Sikhs felt deeply aggrieved by the military action at such a sacred site.

A wave of insurgency emerged in Punjab, as many who had not supported Bhindranwale earlier turned
against the state in protest.

Indira Gandhi

was criticized for launching a military operation inside the Golden Temple; the event had long-lasting
ramifications for national unity.

The 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots

Indira Gandhi’s Assassination

On October 31, 1984,

Indira Gandhi
was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards.

She had declined suggestions to remove Sikh personnel from her security detail, believing it would
project communal bias.

Anti-Sikh Violence

Nationwide riots broke out immediately after Indira Gandhi’s death, with organized mobs targeting
Sikhs in cities like Delhi.

The statement

“when a big tree falls, the earth shakes”

was criticized for suggesting a justification of violence, though the direct instigators were specific
groups.

Many non-Sikhs risked their lives to protect Sikh neighbors, demonstrating that communal frenzy was
not universally supported.

The riots left profound scars, reinforcing the seriousness of communal hatred and the need for
accountability.

The Punjab Accords (Rajiv-Longowal)

Key Points

Formally signed in July 1985 between Prime Minister

Rajiv Gandhi

and Akali leader Harchand Singh Longowal.

Addressed demands like territorial issues (e.g., status of Chandigarh), sharing of river waters, and the
promotion of the Punjabi language.
Intended to resolve outstanding tensions in Punjab and encourage normalcy by meeting certain regional
concerns.

Impact

Many terms of the accords remained unfulfilled, such as determining Chandigarh’s ultimate status.

Commissions like the Sarkaria Commission did not fully alleviate the underlying sense of grievance.

The accords did not entirely quell separatist fervor, though they served as an initial framework for
negotiation.

The 1987–1991 President’s Rule in Punjab

Ongoing violence and multiple incidents, including mass killings of Hindu bus passengers, led to a
constitutional crisis.

The central government imposed President’s rule from 1987 to 1991, centralizing authority in an
attempt to restore order.

Operation Black Thunder

With the memory of Operation Blue Star still fresh, many militants presumed the Indian Army and police
would avoid another entry into the Golden Temple.

In 1988, Operation Black Thunder was carefully planned, relying heavily on intelligence rather than
brute-force assault.

An undercover operation allegedly involved agents posing as sympathetic figures, persuading militants
to surrender.
Unlike Operation Blue Star, the temple complex sustained minimal damage, and most militants were
neutralized or captured, demonstrating refined tactical precision by the state.

The 1992 Elections

Elections were held under tense circumstances, with many boycotting due to fear and disillusionment.

Low voter turnout favored pro-government candidates, ending with a Congress victory amidst ongoing
instability.

During this period, Prime Minister

PV Narasimha Rao

took office (post-1991) and had to navigate the remnants of militancy in Punjab alongside major
economic reforms.

The End of Militancy: KPS Gill Doctrine

KPS Gill

, an IPS officer, spearheaded a forceful strategy to end militancy.

The doctrine posited that people ultimately side with the faction that can provide security, prompting
heavy police operations against militant leadership.

While the approach substantially weakened insurgent groups, civilians also endured abuses from both
police and militants.

By the 1990s, militancy died down, though at a significant human cost, with estimates of around 50,000
fatalities.
Capitalism, Socialism, and Economic Considerations

1991 Balance of Payment Crisis

Socialistic policies from 1947 onward aimed at equitable growth but, according to critics, hindered
industrialization and wealth creation.

By 1991, India faced a severe balance of payment crisis with minimal foreign exchange reserves,
necessitating structural reforms.

Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG)

reforms were introduced to attract investment, modernize industries, and open the economy.

Role of Freebies

State disbursal of unconditional financial or material support was criticized for discouraging productivity
and self-reliance.

A recommended approach was to encourage employment-generation schemes rather than consistent

welfare handouts for able-bodied individuals.

The balance between democratic responsiveness and populist vote-bank politics remained a topic of
debate, with courts and various leaders cautioning against excessive freebies.

Key Initiatives Under Rajiv Gandhi

Technology Missions

Emphasis was placed on computerization and information technology to ensure India did not miss the
global ICT revolution.

Efforts included setting up computer labs in schools and promoting digital literacy, laying an early
foundation for the country’s thriving IT sector.
Rural Employment and Education

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana

was introduced as a precursor to later employment guarantee schemes like MGNREGA.

Operation Blackboard

aimed to improve basic infrastructure in primary schools, encouraging a broader push for universal
education.

A separate Ministry of Environment was established, reflecting sensitivity towards ecological

preservation.

Environmental Focus and Local Governance

Attention to deforestation, pollution, and natural resource management was initiated through early
frameworks and dedicated funds.

Proposals for constitutional recognition of Panchayats evolved into the eventual 73rd and 74th
constitutional amendments (Articles 243).

The anti-defection law was also shaped during this period to maintain stability in legislatures.

India’s Foreign Policy Shifts

Maldives (Operation Cactus)

A failed coup d’état attempt in the Maldives by hired militants led to an urgent plea for assistance by
President Gayoom.

India launched a rapid joint operation involving the Army, Navy, and Air Force to restore order,
reinforcing India’s regional role.
This intervention strengthened Indo-Maldivian relations, though external pressures made the Maldives
periodically align with other powers in subsequent years.

Sri Lanka Conflict (LTTE)

Sri Lankan Tamils, many of whom migrated historically for plantation work, clashed with the Sinhala-
majority government.

The

Sinhala Only Act

and measures disenfranchising Tamil citizens triggered deep resentment, culminating in the rise of the

LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam)

Armed confrontations and mass human rights violations led India to sign the 1987 India–Sri Lanka
Accord, intending to confer regional autonomy to Tamil-majority areas.

The accord required the LTTE to surrender arms, which the group refused, not having been adequately
consulted.

India sent the

Indian Peacekeeping Force (IPKF)

to enforce stability, eventually becoming embroiled in direct conflict with the LTTE.

Rajiv Gandhi’s assassination

in 1991 by an LTTE suicide bomber extinguished any remaining popular sympathy for the group in India.
Kargil War

The

Kargil conflict

in 1999 stemmed from infiltration by the Pakistani army into strategically valuable peaks, disguised as
local insurgent activity.

Live media coverage shaped public perception, a phenomenon that would resurface in subsequent
crises like

26/11 in Mumbai

Diplomatic fallout further isolated Pakistan as the global community widely supported India’s territorial
integrity.

Despite intense fighting, the Indian Army retook vital positions, preventing any permanent change to
the Line of Control.

SECURITY:

CLASS 1
SYLLABUS (01:03 PM):

Linkages between Development and Spread of Extremism.

Role of External State and Non-state Actors in Creating Challenges to Internal Security.
Challenges to Internal Security through Communication Networks, Role of Media and Social
Networking Sites in Internal Security Challenges, Basics of Cyber Security; Money-Laundering
and its Prevention.

Security Challenges and their Management in Border Areas - Linkages of Organized Crime with
Terrorism.

Various Security Forces and Agencies and their Mandate.

Sources:

2nd ARC: Conflict resolution: Naxalism Insurgency in N.E.

Development Challenges in Extremist Affected Areas: Committee headed by D.K

Bandyopadhyay.

Standing Committee Report: NE Insurgency.

Annual report of the Ministry of Home Affairs: Data.

Websites: Institute Of Peace & Conflict Studies: IPCS, ORF, IDSA, Naavi.org (Cyber security).

ORGANISED CRIME IN INDIA: PROBLEMS & PERSPECTIVES: Madan Lal Sharma Prakash Singh
Report.

PRS: Standing Committee report on CAPF.

Value-added material.

INTERNAL SECURITY (01:11 PM):

What is Internal Security?

For this, you need to know about the evolution of life on Earth.

Upper Palaeolithic Age - Scavengers and foragers.

Adaptation - Natural and cultural.

Cultural adaptation:

Records of collective experience - Paintings, speech, script, poetry.

1st Generation warfare:

Gun powder.

Line arrangements.

2nd generation warfare:

Artillery - Tanks, machine guns.

Steam engine.

Telegram

Total war - There are two types of targets - counterforce and countervalue.

3rd Generation warfare:

Storm tactics.

Emergence of a nuclear bomb.

4th Generation warfare:

Unconventional warfare.

Irregular warfare:

Proxy warfare (use of proxies).

The oldest form of warfare.

For example, Operation Gulmarg and the Chinese Revolution.

Unconventional warfare:

Covert warfare.

Hybrid warfare - Information warfare.

Unconventional warfare:

A new dimension - Cyberspace - 5th dimension of warfare.

A new weapon and new target - Data.

Types of warfare (01:51 PM):

1) Irregular warfare:
It is considered the oldest form of warfare wherein a significant proportion of those fighting are
not a part of conventional security forces.

For example, Operation Gulmarg and the Chinese Revolution.

2) Unconventional warfare:

It refers to the use of an indirect or a covert approach to conduct activities such as establishing
resistance movement, insurgency, etc. to coerce, disrupt, or even overthrow the Government
of the adversary.

It may take recourse to the use of proxy forces, underground armies/surrogates, the use of
psyops (psychological operations), information warfare, etc.

For example, ISIS supports the Kahilsatani movement.

3) Hybrid warfare:

It refers to a combination of both conventional and unconventional means.

4) Greyzone operations:

Greyzone can be defined as the condition between complete peace and all-out war.

Greyzone operations hence, are a broad category of operations that seek to exploit multiple
vulnerabilities across the domains of DIMEFLIP (diplomacy, information, military, economic,
etc.) simultaneously.

It is also called guerrilla geopolitics and appears as aggressive competition just short of
conventional war.

Cyber warfare (02:00 PM):

Cyberspace has added another dimension to unconventional warfare in addition to a new

weapon and a new target.

The physical foundation includes the infrastructure, physical devices, and logical building
blocks.

It is followed very closely by information.

The third thing is all the players involved (state and non-state).

Why cyberspace?
Advantages of cyberwarfare:

These mainly stem from the disadvantages of conventional/kinetic warfare.

Conventional warfare begates heavy sanctions (indirect cost) and the direct cost of conducting
warfare activities.

In addition, the deterrence distance created by the introduction of nuclear capabilities makes it
prohibitively expensive both in terms of life and property to engage in conventional war

In this respect, cyberwarfare offers several advantages:

1) Asymmetricity:

Cyberwarfare is asymmetric in terms of its cost, impact, and response.

It can be conducted both at the State and the non-state level.

It can be both long-term and short-term and only a dozen cheaply equipped actors can bring
economies the entire digital infrastructure down.

2) Plausible deniability:

Cyber conflicts are usually low-intensity conflicts and mostly non-lethal.

In addition, attacks can be made to appear as though they originated from a different
jurisdiction.

That is it is extremely difficult to establish the origin of the attack and hence culpability.

Therefore, cyber conflicts usually don't attract retaliation using conventional State instruments
such as the Geneva Convention.

3) Combined warfare:

It is very easy to combine conventional military capabilities with cyber capabilities.

Furthermore, cyber attacks can even be conducted during peacetime.

4) Preference to offense:

The internet has been designed to be collaborative and hence zero-day vulnerabilities shall
always remain (because of competition).

Hence, in cyberspace what matters more is not deterrence but rather offensive capabilities.
India's vulnerability to cyberattacks (03:00 PM):

i) Digitisation:

India has the largest citizen identity program (i.e. Aadhar).

ii) India's internet penetration and digital literacy (know-how and access to digital devices).

iii) India's economy (i.e. size of the economy).

Cyberspace (03:14 PM):

7 million active users.

Cyberspace primarily involves three things:

i) Physical foundation:

This includes connected devices, network infrastructure, as well as the logical building blocks of
these devices (program files).

ii) Information:

It includes both the information stored on these devices and also information transmitted over
these networks.

iii) Actors/entities:

It includes users with various interests who are part of this cyberspace (both State and non-
state).

Types of Cyberthreats:

1) Cyber warfare:

It is commonly defined as the use of offensive action by one or group of nation States against
other nation-states.

For example, the Stuxnet attack alleges to have emanated from Israel-USA against Iran's
nuclear programs.

Another example is Operation Acid Rain conducted by Russian military intelligence hackers
using not Petya wiper worm to attack Ukraine's military establishments.

Operation Cuckoo Bees by the Chinese State actor APT-41 stalled trillions worth of intellectual
property from about 30 MNCs in the USA.
2) Cyber terrorism:

It is the use of cyberspace by terror outfits to carry out unlawful attacks/threats of attacks to
intimidate or coerce a government or its people.

3) Cybercrimes:

These are defined as crimes committed in cyberspace.

For example, hacking, phishing, denial of service attacks (DoS), wiper attacks, cyberstalking,
child pornography, etc.

India's vulnerability to cyber threats (01:38 PM):

India is among the top 5 targets of cyber attacks in the APAC (Asia-Pacific) region, especially
cyber espionage.

The reasons include:

i) Increasing internet penetration in India - 4% in 2007 to 45% in 2021 (700 million plus active
users).

ii) Lack of digital literacy.

iii) India has also embarked upon massive digitization across various spheres of Government
(i.e. digital India campaign, the largest citizen identification program such as Aadhar).

iv) India is fast approaching its target to become a 5 trillion dollar economy and at the same
time, digital modes of payment (UPI) are fast becoming the most commonly accepted modes of
payment across the country.

This puts a sizeable chunk of India's population at risk of cyber crimes.

Examples of major cybersecurity-related incidents in India:

Personal details of 81 crore Indians were leaked and put up for sale on the dark web as a result
of an attack in ICMR.

There was an alleged Chinese cyber attack on five services of AIIMS compromising the health
records of nearly 3-4 crore patients.

68% of organizations in the country have had at least one instance of ransomware attacks.

According to NCRB, there has been a 25% year-on-year increase in reported cyber crime
between 2021-22.
CLASS 2
Legal mechanisms:

1) IT Act 2000:

India's first landmark cyber security legislation was the IT Act 2000.

It was enacted to guide India's cyber security legislation, inform our data protection policies,
and also to cover cybercrime.

Some relevant provisions both define certain cyber offenses and also prescribe punishments for
the same.

For example, Section 43 A places the responsibility to protect sensitive information of users on
businesses and organizations.

Section 66B declares stealing computer resources or communication devices dishonestly as an

offense.

Section 66 C defines identity theft.

Section 66 D defines cheating by personation.

Section 66 F is about cyber terrorism.

Section 67 is about publishing and transmitting obscene material in electronic form.

The IT Act was amended in 2008 placing or adding a few more responsibilities on individuals,
companies, organizations, and service providers including - improvement of cyber security
measures and forensics, mandatory reporting of cyber security incidents, preventing unlawful
use of computer systems, safeguarding electronic transactions, etc.

IT Rules, 2011:

The IT Rules are a supplement to the IT Act and concern themselves primarily with the ways in
which organizations/entities collect, store, process, and protect personal information or other
sensitive information.

These rules were amended in 2021, and guidelines and a code of ethics for intermediaries were
added.

DPDP (Digital Personal Data Protection) Act (01:31 PM):

Passed in the year 2023.

The act borrows its definition of personal data from the EU's GDPR (General Data Protection
Regulation).

The Act primarily - aims to localize data, protect Indian users from breaches worldwide,
requires the processing of personal data and its storage in India, allows the appointment of only
those third-party processors who are bound by a legal contract, and allows the erasure and
destruction of personal data upon withdrawal of consent by the data principle.

ISO 27001 Standards - Indian organizations are not obligated but are advised to implement
these standards.

Policy-related architecture (01:51 PM):

National Cyber security policy, 2013:

It was released in the year 2013 and provides a broad blueprint to create and develop policies
for the protection of India's cyber environment.

Its key provisions include:

Creation of a workforce of over 5 lakh cyber security professionals in five years.

It sorts the setting up of the nodal agency to protect India's critical information infrastructure.

It sorts the development of 24*7 technology to detect and proactively respond to cyber threats.

It mandated the development of IT infrastructure according to standards under ISO 27001.

It encourages organizations to adopt cyber security policies and mandates both public and
private organizations to appoint CIOs (Chief information officers).

National Cyber Security Strategy 2020:

It was introduced to address the flaws of NCSP 2030 (National Cyber Security Policy) and to
make it more effective.

It has three pillars:

The first pillar seeks to secure digital public services, supply chains, and critical information
infrastructure.

The second pillar seeks to strengthen governance structures, institutions, capacity, and
innovation.
The last pillar seeks to synergies internet infrastructure, standards, cyber diplomacy, and
cybercrime investigation.

Institutional measures (01:58 PM):

CERT-In (Computer Emergency Response Team):

It was made official in 2004 and is India's national nodal agency for collecting, analyzing, and
forecasting non-critical cyber security incidents.

NCIIPC (National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre):

It was made official in the year 2014 under Section 70 of the IT Act.

It is the unit of the NTRO and operates under PMO.

It monitors and reports national-level threats to CII (critical information infrastructure - power
and energy, banking, financial services, insurance, telecommunication, transportation,
Government, and strategic and public enterprise).

Cyber Swachhta Kendra (CSK):

It is India's malware and BOTNET detection center.

It provides free tools to users and entities to delete malware from their systems.

I4C - India's cyber crime coordination center:

It is an initiative of MHA to deal with cybercrimes in a coordinated manner.

It facilitates the easy filing of cybercrime incidents, identifies cybercrime trends, and seeks
coordination between law enforcement agencies and stakeholders.

National cybercrime reporting portal:

It caters to easy filing of complaints against cybercrime especially against women and children.

Compliance measures:

KYC norms and relevant amendments to the RBI Act, SEBI Act, and IRDAI.

Challenges with respect to India's cyber security architecture (02:27 PM):

Challenges on the legal front:

India's benchmark legislation, the IT Act was essentially enacted to provide legal sanctions to
electronic contracts and was not meant to be dedicated to cyber security legislation.

The last set of amendments to the IT Act was made in the year 2008 and since then both the
nature and the type of cyber attacks have evolved manifold for which there are no provisions
under the existing law.

For example, ransomware has not been defined under the IT Act.

India does not have a dedicated procedural law concerning cyber offenses.

Hence, agencies have to rely on the Indian Evidence Act which is not fit for the trial of cyber
offenses.

Challenges on the institutional front:

In cyberspace, speed is a distinct advantage, and hence, the bureaucratic response is s distinct
disadvantage.

The multiplicity of agencies creates problems with respect to response and coordination.

Challenges on the policy front:

India's national cyber security policy is outdated and we don't have a comprehensive cyber
security doctrine.

Challenges on the human resource front:

There is a shortage of about 10 million cyber security experts in the country (According to the
Niti Aayog).

Infrastructural challenges:

India imports 70% of its ICT equipment which makes us vulnerable to pre-installed malware.

India spend minuscule proportion of its GDP on R&D (.78% on R&D across domain).

National Cyber Security Strategy 2020 recommends India spend 2.5% of its GDP on cyber
security.

Most State police departments lack State-of-the-art forensic labs.

MONEY LAUNDERING (ML) (02:48 PM):

Criminal activities/corrupt offenses generate substantial profits which creates an incentive to
engage in activities whereby the source of this money could be concealed and funds then could
be reintegrated for their eventual use, without attracting the attention of authorities.

ML is the act of cleaning up illicit proceeds/corrupt money to make it appear clean.

It describes a range of practices to conceal the source, disguise the trail, and reintegrate the
money as legitimate.

Operational principles guiding ML:

i) Moving the funds away from any direct association with the crime.

ii) To disguise the trail of money.

iii) Making the money available for eventual use, while keeping its source secret.

These three operational principles are associated with three stages of ML.

1) Placement stage:

This stage is about the physical disposal of cash usually done by breaking up large amounts of
cash into less conspicuous smaller sums.

It is the first introduction of illicit money into the financial system.

2) Layering:

It refers to the separation of illicit proceeds from their source by creating complex layers of
transactions.

The objective is to conceal the audit trail and provide anonymity.

3) Integration:

It refers to the reinjection of laundered proceeds back into the economy in a way that they
appear as legitimate funds.

Mechanisms of Money Laundering (03:36 PM):

i) Use of cash couriers - smurfing.

ii) Casinos.

iii) Lottery tickets.

iv) Collectibles.

v) Front-end companies/legitimate businesses.

vi) Hawala transactions - Informal value transfer operating on the basis of trust

CLASS 3
MONEY LAUNDERING (01:11 PM):

Implications or impact of Money Laundering (ML):

1) Economic impacts:

1.1) Obfuscation of monetary policy:

Central banks rely on accurate data to make decisions regarding inter-State, inflation targets, or
money supply in general.

Money laundering can distort the effectiveness of monetary policy since it creates incentives
for some cash to flow unaccounted for in the underground economy.

1.2) Demand and supply mismatch:

ML has the effect of creating a demand and supply mismatch.

For instance, in India, roughly 7-8 crore people file income tax returns out of which 70% returns
are zero tax returns.

At the same time, certain markets such as the real estate markets witness almost consistent
appreciation, which is unexplainable.

1.3) It hurts the reputation of an economy on a global stage that when a country is perceived as
having weak anti-money laundering (AML) measures or carries a reputation of being a hub for
illicit financial activities, it can discourage institutional investments.

ML may also affect the balance of payments.

2) Political impact:

It incentivizes the infiltration of illicit funds into political campaigns, parties, and processes and
hence, may breed criminalization of politics.
3) Social impact (02:14 PM):

ML can both feed into and also exacerbate inequality of wealth.

Since ML is correlated with the proceeds of crime, it may lead to the erosion of public trust that
is people perceive that the wealthy and powerful can act with impunity, it erodes social
solidarity and diminishes a shared sense of responsibility.

If ML continues unabated, it may lead to general tolerance for corruption amongst members of
the society.

Anti-money Laundering (AML) Measures (02:21 PM):

Legal Measures:

Prevention of ML Act 2002:

The act defines the offense of ML.

"Whoever directly or indirectly attempts to indulge in or knowingly assists, or is actually

involved in any activity/process connected with the proceeds of crime - Concealment,
acquisition, possession, and use, projecting it as untainted property and claiming it as untainted
property is guilty of the offense of ML".

Implementation authority - Directorate of Enforcement (ED), Department of Revenue, Ministry

of Finance.

The act prescribes punishment - 7 years of rigorous imprisonment and a fine of 5 lakhs.

The act also gives the power of search, seizure, arrest, and confiscation to the ED.

Attachment, adjudication, and confiscation:

If an officer of ED has reasons to believe that a person is in possession of proceeds of crime, is

charged with committing a scheduled offense, and may conceal, or transfer these proceeds or
may frustrate proceedings.

He can issue a written order for the provisional attachment of this property.

A copy of this order has to be sent to the adjudicating authority appointed under PMLA and the
ED shall also file a formal complaint before the adjudicating authority.

The adjudicating authority has the same powers as that of a civil court and upon receiving the
complaint, it may summon the person to indicate sources, means, etc.
After considering the reply of the person, hearing both parties, and considering all materials if
the adjudicating authority prima-facia is convinced that the property is involved in ML, it will
confirm the attachment of the property.

This confirmation shall continue till the court proceedings are continued.

And, if the guilt is proven in the court of law, then confirmation becomes final and property is
confiscated.

The burden of proof (03:20 PM):

To prove that this property is untainted, the burden lies on the accused.

Appellate tribunal:

If either party is aggrieved by the order of the adjudicating authority, an appeal can be filed
with the appellate tribunal which is also appointed by the central government under PMLA.

Special courts:

The central Government in consultation with the HC of the State may designate any session
court as a special court for the purpose of trial of both the scheduled offense and ML.

All offenses under PMLA are cognizable and non-bailable which is a twin condition for bail.

i) The public prosecutor (PP) has to be given an opportunity to oppose the bail application.

ii) When the PP opposes the bail, the court can release the accused on bail only if it is satisfied
that the accused is not guilty of the offense and is not likely to commit any offense while on
bail.

Vijay ML Choudhary Case:

Bones of contention:

The petitioner argued that projecting tainted money as clean is an essential component of ML.

The SC rejected this argument.

Effectively one can now be charged with the offense of ML if they have merely received or used
the proceeds of crime.

The petitioner argued that ED has similar powers as that of the police and hence, must be
governed by the same procedural standards.
The court rejected this argument also stating that enquiries under PMLA are significantly
different from criminal investigation.

Consequently, PMLA doesn't violate the right against self-incrimination.

The court also stated that ECIR is an internal document of ED and hence, ED is not bound to
share a copy of the same with the accused.

Other legal measures:

Benami Transactions Act.

Income Tax Act 1961.

NDPS (Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances) Act.

Institutional Measures (03:36 PM):

ED.

AA - Adjudicating Authority.

Appellate Authority.

Financial intelligence units (FIUs).

Compliance measures:

KYC norms.

Banks are required to follow Chapter 4 of the PMLA.

Global measures:

FATF - Financial Action Task Force:

Created in the year 1989 by the group of G-7 countries as a global task force against ML efforts.

In 2001, it also added to its mandate CFT (Counter financing of terror) and anti-proliferation
measures.

Roles and functions of FATF:

The FATF researches evolving methods of ML.

It issues a comprehensive list of measures to help countries tackle illicit financial flaws.
These measures were previously called 40 recommendations and are now called FATF
standards.

To review the implementation of FATF standards (peer review mechanism).

Identification of high-risk jurisdiction - FATF continuously monitors and identifies jurisdictions

with significant weaknesses in their AML/CFT measures and also issues a public warning about
risk emanating from these jurisdictions through its documents which are published thrice every
year.

FATF grey list - Countries under increased monitoring but are actively cooperating with FATF.

FATF blacklist - High-risk jurisdictions subject to a call for action.

Some other global measures include the Asia Pacific Group on ML, the IMOLIN (International
Money Laundering Information Network), and the Egmont Group.

CLASS 4
ORGANIZED CRIMES AND ITS LINKAGES WITH TERRORISM (01:14 PM):

Organized Crimes (OC):

Crimes or crime categories may be different but what separates or differentiates organized
crimes is the term organized which is derived from the term organization.

An organization is an association of people who come together to cooperate in order to

accomplish a task.

As such, there are multiple characteristics of the organization including common objectives,
rules-based behaviour, specialization, hierarchy, etc.

Despite this, the term OC is defined differently by different organizations.

For instance, it has been defined as a continued criminal conspiracy committed by an organized
structure, driven by greed, that derives its success from the use of fear, corruption, or even
violence.

Another definition by the Treaty of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters 1973, defines OC as
an association of individuals for periods of time taking recourse to both legal or illegal means.
Indian Legal scenario (02:00 PM):

According to the Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA), OC has been defined
as a continuing unlawful activity by an individual either singly or jointly, as a member of or on
behalf of an OC syndicate, by using violence, or threat of violence/intimidation, or any unlawful
means with the objective of gaining a pecuniary benefit, or any other undue economic
advantage for self or others or for promoting insurgency.

Under Section 111 of Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), OC's definition is broadly the same, with
an omission of insurgency.

The BNS also creates a new category of petty OCs.

Linkages between OCs and Terrorism (02:12 PM):

Differences between the two:

i) Organized criminal groups (OCG) are driven by non-ideological considerations while terrorist
groups (TG) and terror outfits are driven by ideological considerations (Fundamentalism).

ii) The goal of OCGs is pecuniary while that of the TGs is to seek political power.

iii) OCGs don't normally seek any publicity while TGs are quick to assume responsibility for their
acts.

iv) OGCs understand that they present an asymmetric threat to the might of the State and
hence, avoid any direct confrontation with the State.

However, terrorist outfits don't shy away from any direct confrontation with the State.

The similarity between the two:

i) Common enemy.

ii) They both recruit from a common resource pool.

iii) Both of them use fear tactics and intimidation, and they also don't shy away from using
violence.

iv) Both have restricted membership and both of them observe common rules of conduct.

Theoretical linkages between OC and Terrorist Groups (03:24 PM):

There are three stages in the crime-terror continuum:

1) Alliance:

An alliance occurs when criminal groups associate with terror outfits or vice-versa to leverage
each other's comparative advantage that is sharing of expert knowledge.

2) Transformation:

It occurs when either of the two tries to assume each other's tactics/roles for operational
motivations.

For example, OCGs may engage in political activity to change operational conditions for them or
terror groups may focus on criminal activities for financial reasons.

3) Convergence:

It means transformation and mixing of tactics to an extent where it becomes practically

impossible to differentiate between the terror organization aspect or organized criminal group
aspect of the same group.

Case studies of various linkages between OCGs and terror outfits (03:30 PM):

1) Drug trafficking and terrorism:

According to the World Drug Report 2021, 1 in every 17 people across the world has used a
drug at least once (23% decadal increase).

Drug trafficking accounts for roughly 1/3rd of all operating profits of all organized crimes taken
together.

Consequently, terror organizations are taking a keen interest.

For instance, before 2022, nearly 86% of the world's illicit opium production came from
Afghanistan alone.

Over 40% of terror plots in Europe were party financed from the proceeds of drug trafficking.

2) Human Trafficking:

Trafficking for sexual exploitation/forced labour is the most common motivation but human
trafficking can be exploited in other ways also.

For example, begging, organ harvesting, foot soldiers recruitment, pornography, etc.

Abduction, rape, and sexual assault have long been used by terror organizations to subjugate
local populations and advance their ideologies.
For example, the abduction of nearly 60,000 Yazidi women by ISIS.

3) Trade in cultural property:

Cultural property is not just a source of revenue but its desecration/removal is also used to
undermine the morale of the local population (cultural cleansing).

For example, the 2001 attack on Bamiyan statues in Afghanistan.

4) Intellectual property theft:

Intellectual property crimes constitute the largest black economy in the World even surpassing
the global narcotics trade (3.3% of the world's trade value).

Cigarettes are the most frequently pirated products by terrorist organizations.

For example, in 2016, terrorist organizations in North Africa were responsible for contraband
tobacco trade valued at 1 billion dollars annually.

5) Exploitation of natural resources:

Several terrorist organizations have involved themselves in the illicit trade of natural resources.

For example:

ISIS - Oil trafficking.

Al-Shabab - Charcoal trafficking.

CLASS 5
EXAMPLES OF ORGANIZED CRIMES (OC) AND THEIR LINKAGES WITH TERROR OUTFITS IN INDIA
(01:05 PM):

Kashmir - External sources of financing + Overground workers.

For example, Markaz-ud-Dawa-lrshad - Jaish-e-Mohammad.

Zakat is collected and pooled to finance terrorist activities in Kasmir.

Jamaat-e-Islami - Maulana Maududi - Was interested in the political aspects of Islam.

Punjab and Bengal were mainly affected by the partition.

1920s to 1939 - Unionist Party in Punjab.

1987 election - Jamaat-e-Islami participated.

1980s - Emergence of insurgency in Punjab.

2001 onwards - Drug trafficking due to multiple reasons such as lack of opportunities, opulence,
border State, etc.

Problems in East India - drug trafficking, weapon proliferation, and human trafficking.

Legal architecture (01:30 PM):

The legal architecture concerning offenses related to terrorism included the now-repealed
POTA, TADA, and UAPA.

UAPA was enacted in 1967, concerning itself with unlawful activities and unlawful associations.

In 2004, an amendment to UAPA added relevant provisions concerning the offense of terrorist
activities and terror organizations.

The UAPA defines the offense of terrorist act as any act done with the intent to threaten the
unity, integrity, security, economic security, or sovereignty of India, or with intent to strike
terror, or likely to strike terror amongst people in India or any foreign country.

The act also defines terror organizations as any organization that either commits a terrorist act,
prepares for a terrorist act, increases/promotes a terrorist act, or is otherwise involved in
terrorism.

It is the central Government that can designate any organization as a terrorist organization by
adding its name to schedule one of UAPA.

The act also has provisions for the creation of new or specialized investigation agencies for
speedy investigation as well as provisions for special courts for speedy trials.

The investigation agency created is the National Investigation Agency (NIA) which was
established under the NIA Act 2008.

The agency is a national agency that investigates and prosecutes offenses affecting the security,
integrity, and sovereignty of India - Security of States, offenses affecting friendly relations with
other nations, or offenses under acts to implement international treaties, agreements,
conventions, etc.

Investigation of scheduled offenses (01:50 PM):

On the receipt of any information related to scheduled offenses, the officer in charge at the
relevant police station shall forward the report to the State Government, who shall forward it
to the central Government as soon as possible.

Upon the receipt of this report, the Central Government shall determine whether the offense is
fit to be investigated by the NIA or not (15 days).

The central Government can also take a suo-moto cognizance and direct the agency to
investigate the offense.

NIA also reserves the power to request cooperation from the State police force and delegate a
part of or entire investigation to the State police force.

NAXALISM (01:56 PM):

Naxalbari movement.

Communism - Classless and stateless society.

Socialism - Means of production owned and controlled by the State.

Capitalism - Based on the ideology of accumulation of capital by the capitalist class.

Stock - Subsistence+surplus (further production).

Capital - Part of the stock that is going for further production.

Types of capital (Any physical thing that aids in the production of goods) - Fixed capital and
circulating capital.

Fixed capital is also called investment in economics.

Division of labour requires more stocks with you.

Who will have more stocks - The industrialist/capitalist class.

Free market economy - No entry barrier to production.

Communism (02:24 PM):

Brainchild of Karl Marx.

Factors responsible for the Industrial Revolution (IR) - Conditions of workers.

The basic philosophy of Karl Marx is historical materialism (Production is absolutely necessary).

Instruments of labour/production - Tools, instruments, machines.

Natural resources - Objects of production.

Means of production - Instruments of production+Object of production.

Forces of production - Human resources+instruments of production+object of production.

Production is a social process, thus it is characterized by relations of production.

i) Technical relations of production.

ii) Ownership relations - Those who own means of production (owners) and those who don't
own means of production (Non-owners).

Forces of production+Relations of production = Mode of production.

Forces of production - Characterised by change.

Relations of production - Status Quoist.

Capital has led to the creation of two classes - The ownership class (bourgeoisie) and the non-
ownership class (Proletariat).

Pauperization and homogenization will eventually lead to polarization (class in itself).

Total class consciousness can bring change from "class in itself" to "class for itself".

Socialism:

A diluted version of Marxism.

Ownership of means of production by the State.

Impact of communism across the world politics (03:20 PM):

1925 - Birth of the Communist Party of India (CPI).

Inequality is the primary cause of everything.

1939 - World War II.

1945 - The war ended.

Two factions emerged within CPI in 1945 - Pro-election (faction working under the Lenin
framework) and Anti-election (Zhdanov).

AR Desai - There is no concept of nationalism in India.

1952 - General elections in India (CPI won around 26 seats).

1950s:

Land reforms - Land ceiling, land redistribution, land consolidation, tenancy act, etc.

India also adopted a planned economy - the Idea came from the USSR.

IPR (Industrial Policy Resolution), 1956.

Panchsheel agreement with China.

1962 - Chinese aggression.

Radicals dissociated from the CPI and created CPI(M).

CPI(M) is more active in West Bengal (United Front (UF)Government of CPI(M)).

1967 - Tribal peasant in Naxalbari region (Violent land grab movement).

1967 - Birth of the Naxalbari movement.

Naxalism (03:53 PM):

It is an ideology associated with the violent left-wing extremist movement in India.

It is fundamentally linked to the Naxalbari movement which was a violent land grab movement
that started in the Naxalbari village in West Bengal (WB) in the year 1967.

The immediate trigger of the Naxalbari movement was an attack on a tribal peasant who had
secured a judicial order to cultivate his own land.

The prominent leaders of the Naxalbari movements are Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal.

Both of them belonged to CPI(M) and wanted to wage an armed struggle against the State,
deeply influenced by Mao's ideas and principles.

CLASS 6
EXAMPLES OF ORGANIZED CRIMES (OC) AND THEIR LINKAGES WITH TERROR OUTFITS IN INDIA
(01:05 PM):
Kashmir - External sources of financing + Overground workers.

For example, Markaz-ud-Dawa-lrshad - Jaish-e-Mohammad.

Zakat is collected and pooled to finance terrorist activities in Kasmir.

Jamaat-e-Islami - Maulana Maududi - Was interested in the political aspects of Islam.

Punjab and Bengal were mainly affected by the partition.

1920s to 1939 - Unionist Party in Punjab.

1987 election - Jamaat-e-Islami participated.

1980s - Emergence of insurgency in Punjab.

2001 onwards - Drug trafficking due to multiple reasons such as lack of opportunities, opulence,
border State, etc.

Problems in East India - drug trafficking, weapon proliferation, and human trafficking.

Legal architecture (01:30 PM):

The legal architecture concerning offenses related to terrorism included the now-repealed
POTA, TADA, and UAPA.

UAPA was enacted in 1967, concerning itself with unlawful activities and unlawful associations.

In 2004, an amendment to UAPA added relevant provisions concerning the offense of terrorist
activities and terror organizations.

The UAPA defines the offense of terrorist act as any act done with the intent to threaten the
unity, integrity, security, economic security, or sovereignty of India, or with intent to strike
terror, or likely to strike terror amongst people in India or any foreign country.

The act also defines terror organizations as any organization that either commits a terrorist act,
prepares for a terrorist act, increases/promotes a terrorist act, or is otherwise involved in
terrorism.

It is the central Government that can designate any organization as a terrorist organization by
adding its name to schedule one of UAPA.
The act also has provisions for the creation of new or specialized investigation agencies for
speedy investigation as well as provisions for special courts for speedy trials.

The investigation agency created is the National Investigation Agency (NIA) which was
established under the NIA Act 2008.

The agency is a national agency that investigates and prosecutes offenses affecting the security,
integrity, and sovereignty of India - Security of States, offenses affecting friendly relations with
other nations, or offenses under acts to implement international treaties, agreements,
conventions, etc.

Investigation of scheduled offenses (01:50 PM):

On the receipt of any information related to scheduled offenses, the officer in charge at the
relevant police station shall forward the report to the State Government, who shall forward it
to the central Government as soon as possible.

Upon the receipt of this report, the Central Government shall determine whether the offense is
fit to be investigated by the NIA or not (15 days).

The central Government can also take a suo-moto cognizance and direct the agency to
investigate the offense.

NIA also reserves the power to request cooperation from the State police force and delegate a
part of or entire investigation to the State police force.

NAXALISM (01:56 PM):

Naxalbari movement.

Communism - Classless and stateless society.

Socialism - Means of production owned and controlled by the State.

Capitalism - Based on the ideology of accumulation of capital by the capitalist class.

Stock - Subsistence+surplus (further production).

Capital - Part of the stock that is going for further production.

Types of capital (Any physical thing that aids in the production of goods) - Fixed capital and
circulating capital.
Fixed capital is also called investment in economics.

Division of labour requires more stocks with you.

Who will have more stocks - The industrialist/capitalist class.

Free market economy - No entry barrier to production.

Communism (02:24 PM):

Brainchild of Karl Marx.

Factors responsible for the Industrial Revolution (IR) - Conditions of workers.

The basic philosophy of Karl Marx is historical materialism (Production is absolutely necessary).

Instruments of labour/production - Tools, instruments, machines.

Natural resources - Objects of production.

Means of production - Instruments of production+Object of production.

Forces of production - Human resources+instruments of production+object of production.

Production is a social process, thus it is characterized by relations of production.

i) Technical relations of production.

ii) Ownership relations - Those who own means of production (owners) and those who don't
own means of production (Non-owners).

Forces of production+Relations of production = Mode of production.

Forces of production - Characterised by change.

Relations of production - Status Quoist.

Capital has led to the creation of two classes - The ownership class (bourgeoisie) and the non-
ownership class (Proletariat).

Pauperization and homogenization will eventually lead to polarization (class in itself).

Total class consciousness can bring change from "class in itself" to "class for itself".

Socialism:

A diluted version of Marxism.

Ownership of means of production by the State.

Impact of communism across the world politics (03:20 PM):

1925 - Birth of the Communist Party of India (CPI).

Inequality is the primary cause of everything.

1939 - World War II.

1945 - The war ended.

Two factions emerged within CPI in 1945 - Pro-election (faction working under the Lenin
framework) and Anti-election (Zhdanov).

AR Desai - There is no concept of nationalism in India.

1952 - General elections in India (CPI won around 26 seats).

1950s:

Land reforms - Land ceiling, land redistribution, land consolidation, tenancy act, etc.

India also adopted a planned economy - the Idea came from the USSR.

IPR (Industrial Policy Resolution), 1956.

Panchsheel agreement with China.

1962 - Chinese aggression.

Radicals dissociated from the CPI and created CPI(M).

CPI(M) is more active in West Bengal (United Front (UF)Government of CPI(M)).

1967 - Tribal peasant in Naxalbari region (Violent land grab movement).

1967 - Birth of the Naxalbari movement.

Naxalism (03:53 PM):

It is an ideology associated with the violent left-wing extremist movement in India.

It is fundamentally linked to the Naxalbari movement which was a violent land grab movement
that started in the Naxalbari village in West Bengal (WB) in the year 1967.
The immediate trigger of the Naxalbari movement was an attack on a tribal peasant who had
secured a judicial order to cultivate his own land.

The prominent leaders of the Naxalbari movements are Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal.

Both of them belonged to CPI(M) and wanted to wage an armed struggle against the State,
deeply influenced by Mao's ideas and principles.

CLASS 7
NAXALISM (01:14 PM):

Causes behind the persistence of Naxalism in the country:

1) Social structure:

The problem of Naxalism in India invariably overlaps with conditions of poverty and
marginalization.

Therefore, it derives its social base and operational support mostly from agrarian classes and
tribal groups who have been subject to poverty, marginalization, and exploitation by the elites
and even the State agencies.

Ideologically, Naxals find support coming in from the educated urban intellectual class which
forms their ideological front highlighting the deprivation of masses and violation of their human
rights while masking the violence committed by the Naxals.

2) Economic factors:

2.1) Inequalities:

On one hand, India has experienced relatively fast economic growth while on the other there
are widening inequalities.

To facilitate growth and to continue with the developmental agenda, businesses will need more
land and natural resources.

Unfortunately, this is often seen as coinciding with the land rights of tribals and peasantry.

2.2) Development and displacement:

LWE-affected regions coincidently happened to be resource-rich and hence the investment

made by the industries often results in the displacement of the local population.
The near absence/inadequacy of rehabilitation and resettlement policies leads to "Aggravation
of Deprivation" experienced by those who are displaced.

This leads them to develop an antagonistic attitude towards the State.

For example, between 1947 and 2000, 80% of the displaced population in India were tribals.

2.3) Environmental degradation (ED):

ED and destruction caused by mining and industrial activities affect natural resources which are
not just economically but also culturally significant to tribal communities.

3) Governance and administrative factors:

3.1) Failure of land reforms:

The slow implementation, procedural delays, and eventual failure of land reforms are the
primary reasons behind class-based inequalities in rural areas.

3.2) Inadequate implementation of 5th schedule provisions:

For example, Tribal Advisory Councils (TACs) are not constituted across various places, are not
notified, guidelines around their functioning are not outlined, etc.

3.3) Poor governance:

Governance is either poor or non-existent in certain LWE-affected areas.

Posting to these areas is considered punishment postings leading to inefficient and incapable
officers getting deployed there.

This failure of governance to reach the last mile creates a vacuum which is then filled by parallel
institutions created by Naxals.

4) External support:

The CPI(Maoist) has wowed the pledge to create a United Front with like-minded
terrorist/insurgent outfits often supported by external state and non-state actors.

India's approach towards LWE (02:00 PM):

To comprehensively address the LWE problem, the Government has formulated a National
policy and action plan, and also the SAMADHAN Doctrine.

This strategy relies on three important pillars:

i) Security.

ii) Development.

iii) Safeguarding the rights and entitlements of the local population.

Important developmental initiatives:

District Mineral Settlement Fund (DMSF):

Part of the proceeds from mining activities is dedicated towards developmental efforts for
tribal and local populations.

The Aspirational District Program (ADP):

Which seeks coordination between the center and the State Governments in areas related to
health, education, and infrastructure.

Developmental Infrastructure such as Eklavya Model Residential Schools.

Civil Action Plan for greater interaction between security forces and local communities
especially to bridge trust deficit.

Media Action Plan to create awareness to counter Maoist propaganda.

Security initiatives:

Scheme for modernization of police forces:

It is an umbrella scheme under which there are several sub-schemes, for instance:

Security-related expenditure scheme - Wherein the central Government reimburses security-

related expenditure to the State Government.

Special Central Assistance Scheme for severely affected LWE regions to address critical gaps in
public infrastructure and services.

Construction of fortified police stations.

Special Infrastructure Scheme to strengthen special forces and special intelligence branches of
States.

A special vertical has been established under NIA for the investigation of cases pertaining to
LWE.

The latest use of technology and air support.

Creation of Elite Anti-Naxal Forces, for example, Greyhound in Andhra Pradesh, Black Panthers
(Chhattisgarh), and Cobra Battalion of CRPF.

For better coordination, the central Government has created a Unified Command Centre for
CRPF across Naxal-affected States.

There is a periodic assessment of anti-naxal operations done by the Ministry of Home Affairs
(MHA).

Conference of CMs of Naxal-affected States headed by the Home Minister.

INSURGENCY IN NORTH EAST INDIA (02:47 PM):

The Britishers came to India as traders and one of their chief objectives was the expansion of
their markets.

When they turned Eastwards, they met an equally strong expansionist power in the form of the
Konbaung dynasty of Burma.

The Burmese had invaded North East India on two counts - 1816 and 1819.

From 1819 till 1924, they controlled both Assam and Manipur.

First Anglo-Burmese War:

There were multiple reasons for the first Anglo-Burmese war including the expansion of the
market, avoiding sharing a long boundary with another expansionist power, and ending the
French influence in Burma.

The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, which terminated the Ahom
rule.

Britishers divided Assam into lower and upper Assam.

Lower Assam was put under the commissionaire system while martial law was introduced in
upper Assam.

Following some resistance coming from Ahoms, the Britishers restored monarchy in upper
Assam which was eventually terminated in the year 1838.

In the meantime, the Britishers engaged in a series of annexations capturing Jaintia Hills, Cachar
Hills, Garo Hills, Nago, Lushai Hills, etc.
Practically between 1826 and 1895, the British control over North East India was complete.

System of administration under the British (03:48 PM):

Colonial Assam was divided into two types of areas - Hills and plains.

The Britishers found it wise to not directly run the administration of the hills because of the
following reasons:

History of hostility.

They were averse to any outsider's control.

The cost of conquest and administration was prohibitive compared to the returns.

Series:

In 1873, the Britishers introduced Regulation I called the Inner Line Regulation.

In 1874, they introduced the Scheduled District Act (SDA) which restricted the extension of
general administration to districts mentioned in the SDA.

The Government of India (GOI) Act of 1919 renamed these hill regions "Backward Areas".

The GOI Act of 1935 reclassified these backward areas as "Excluded and Partially Excluded
Areas".

Post-independence, the Bordoloi sub-committee acknowledged the distinctive colonial history,

and administrative and economic experience of these regions and recommended the
introduction of the VIth Schedule to grant them autonomy in matters of their administration.

CLASS 8
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:09 PM).

INSURGENCY IN THE NORTH EAST INDIA (01:17 PM):

Naga Issue:

The Ahom followed a policy of carrot and stick towards the Naga tribes.
Following the British control over North Eastern regions, the Nagas enjoyed almost complete
autonomy because of the British policy of non-interference.

In 1918, the Naga club was founded mostly comprising the tribal chiefs and the youths, for the
socio-economic development of Naga hills.

This club enjoyed official patronage.

In fact, the Naga club submitted a memorandum to the Simon Commission to exclude Nagas
from the post-constitutional reforms and continue the direct administration under the
Governor.

In 1945, the Naga Hill District Council (NHDC) was established which broadly had the same
composition as the Naga Club.

The tribal chiefs soon renamed NHDC as a Naga National Council (NNC).

This council submitted a memorandum to the cabinet mission stating the following:

i) NNC represents the solidarity of all Naga tribes including those in unadministered areas
(Burma).

ii) It protested the grouping of Assam with the Bengal province fearing a loss of autonomy.

iii) It asked for the Naga hills to be included in an autonomous Assam with due safeguards for
the Naga interests including a separate electorate.

Closer to the Indian independence, there emerged a difference of opinion amongst the Nagas
with respect to their future:

i) Continuation within India as an integrated but autonomous State.

ii) Maintaining special arrangements with India until sufficient experience has been gained to
govern Nagaland as an independent State.

iii) Some favoured integration under the British crown (Crown colony).

iv) There was a small but influential segment that favoured complete and immediate
independence from India

As this segment started to gain traction, the PM sent Sir Akbar Hydari to negotiate with Nagas.

It was the last clause of the 9-point Hyadri agreement which proved contagious.

This resulted in the NNC declaring independence of Nagaland on the 14th of August 1947.
Under AZ Phizo's leadership, elections were boycotted and a plebiscite was also staged.

Insurgency began in 1953, a parallel Government was constituted in 1955 with a separate
constitution and a separate flag, and the Naga home guards were turned into the Naga Army.

In 1956, the Indian Government sent the Indian army, and the AFSPA (Armed Forces (Special
Powers) Act) was introduced in 1958.

On the political front, the Central Government decided to negotiate with the ATNPC (All Tribes
Naga People Convention) leading to the creation of NHTA (Naga Hills Tuensang Area) followed
by the creation of a separate State of Nagaland in 1963.

Meanwhile, a peace mission was also appointed which had representation from AZ Phizo.

This peace mission failed and was dissolved in 1967.

Meanwhile, a new political party emerged in Nagaland called the United Democratic Party
(UDP) which urged the Naga insurgents to give up arms.

Some insurgents accepted the constitution of India in 1975 (Shillong Accord).

While others went to China and created a new organization called NSCN (National Socialist
Council of Nagaland) under the leadership of Issac-Muivah.

In 1988, NSCN split into two major factions called NSCN (IM) and NSCN (K).

Note - K stands for Khaplang.

Issues with respect to the Mizoram (02:40 PM):

The Lushai hills which were eventually renamed as Mizo Hill district were inhabited by the
tribes of the Zo ancestry.

The Britishers didn't interfere much in the system of administration practiced by the tribal
chiefs in this region.

However, they did make inroads into their socio-cultural life.

For instance, the proselytization efforts of the Welsh missionaries led to Christianity emerging
as a major religion in the Mizo Hills district by the 1930s.

The church also set up schools and rudimentary health services.

Through modern education, western ways of living and thinking started to become popular
amongst the Mizo youth.
The Mizo youth organized themselves and created two major political parties pre-
independence:

The Mizo Common People's Union (Pro-India).

The United Mizo Freedom Organization (UMFO).

After independence, the extension of the 6th schedule met with limited success with the Mizo
Union being the mainstream political party.

However, financial issues soon started to creep in disturbing the functioning of ADCs
(Autonomous District Councils).

Around the same time, demand for autonomy started to crop up because of the following
issues:

i) Integrationist attitude of the State Reorganization Commission (SRC).

ii) The enactment of the Assam Official Language Bill 1959 which made Assamese the official
language of the State.

Because of these issues, even the moderate Mizo Union could no longer afford to stay
moderate.

iii) The reason also witnessed the infamous Mautam famine in 1959 where the locals felt that
the Assamese State Government was extremely negligent with respect to the relief operations.

Consequently, several Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) came up, the most influential of which
was the Mizo National Famine Front under Lal Denga.

The Front quickly dropped the word famine and became the Mizo National Front (MNF).

Insurgency began in 1963 and in 1966, they declared independence for Mizoram.

The arms struggle lasted for 20 years and ended with the signing of the Mizo Accord in 1986.

In 1987, Mizoram attained full Statehood and Lal Denga became its first elected chief Minister.

Assam (03:13 PM):

Religious composition - Hinduism (62%)>Islam (34%)> Christianity (4%)>others.

Language spoken - Assamese>Bengali>Hindi>Bodo>Others.

The biggest/chief issue - Illegal immigration - Begins in the year 1905.

1947 - Partition of India - Range of illegal immigration.

1971 - Bangladesh liberation war.

Anti-foreigner agitation led by All Assam Student Union (AASU) - Cretaed a problem of
demographic inversion.

AASU converted to Asom Gana Parishad.

1985 - Assam Accord (AA).

Clause 5 of AA - Creates a deadline - 1st January 1966 and 25th March 1971.

NRC - National registry of citizens.

2010 - Pilot NRC - Discontinued due to violent agitation - Resumed in 2013.

Concerns of the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) (Local armed militia):

Integration of Assam with India (Ahom - Burmese - British - India).

The common Assamese should also wage an armed struggle.

The attitude of the central Government (Status reflective attitude).

The implementation of the Assam accord.

Tripartite Agreement - Central Government+State Government+Members of ULFA.

Assam Issues (03:37 PM)

There are primarily four types of conflicts in Assam, these include:

1) Tribal vs. tribals.

For example, Bodos vs. Santhalis.

2) Tribal vs. non-tribals.

For example, Bodos vs. the ethnic Assamese, Bodos vs. Muslims, etc.

3) Conflict over preferential treatment based on ethnicity.

4) Conflicts over separate Statehood.

The broader reasons behind these conflicts include:

1) Identity politics:

Any group exercising power may start displaying hegemonic tendencies.

This generates a feeling of deprivation among others.

Smaller ethnic groups in Assam have long felt these chauvinistic tendencies.

For example, the imposition of the Assam Official Language Act.

2) Immigration and demographic pressure:

Immigration in Assam dates back to the colonial period when the British encouraged the
migration of tribes from Central India as indentured labourers in this region.

In 1905, the influx of immigrants accelerated when parts of East Bengal were merged with
Assam.

This was followed by illegal immigration in 1947 and finally during the Bangladesh Liberation
War, which is when it increased exponentially.

Although, the issue of illegal immigration is not endemic to Assam alone, with Assam it has
become a routine activity due to the porosity of borders.

This fuelled the anti-foreigner agitation.

3) Geographical isolation:

Historians argue that the Ahom lived in close cooperation with other tribes during pre-colonial
times.

However, the differential treatment by the British eroded this social cohesion.

4) Attitude of the Indian Government:

It is argued that the attitude of the Indian Government towards Assam is "Status Reflexive" and
is primarily governed by security concerns rather than developmental efforts.

Issues:

1) Ethnic conflict and illegal immigration:

This gained prominence and led to the anti-foreigner agitation from 1979 to 1985.

It ended with the signing of the Assam Accord.

Two clauses of the AA are still relevant - Clause 5 and Clause 6.

Clause 5 is also known as the foreigner clause aimed at the deduction, deletion, registration,
and re-regularisation of foreigners with respect to a certain pre-specified cutoff date.

NRC update:

The NRC of Assam will be updated to include the names of persons or their lineal descendence
who either appeared in NRC 1951 or in any electoral rolls issued until the mid-night of March
24, 1971, or in any other admissible documents (Central Government) issued until the mid-
night of March 24, 1971.

To get their names included the citizens shall have to submit application forms with
documentary evidence, which would be verified, a draft NRC would be published, and
aggrieved citizens shall be given a chance to submit their claims or objections following which
the final NRC shall be published.

2) Bodos:

Bodos have issues concerning:

i) Protection of land rights.

ii) Recognition of their distinct identity.

iii) Increased representation both at the central and state levels.

iv) Economic development.

3) ULFA:

ULFA is the armed militia that emerged around the time of anti-foreigner agitation.

Their main concerns are:

i) Integration of Assam was done without the free consent of the Assamese.

ii) The rise of the separatism in Assam, was because the ethnic Assamese didn't have a violent
campaign of their own.

iii) Inequitable resource sharing.

iv) Poor implementation of the Assam Accord.

CLASS 9
INSURGENCY IN NORTH EAST INDIA (01:08 PM):

Manipur issue:

Ethnically Manipur consists of the following communities:

The Meiteis, Nagas, Kukis, Pangals, and Nepalis.

The numerically dominant communities are the Meieis, Nagas, and Kukis.

The culture of the local communities evolved independently of each other and there emerged
no assimilation of their cultural identity.

The Meities adopted Vaishnav Hinduism while Kukis and Nagas were partially influenced by the
proselytization efforts of the British.

As such, their history/heritage evolved independently of each other.

Emergence of Meitei Identity (01:29 PM):

The causes include:

i) Perceived forced merger of the Indian State.

ii) Bureaucratic aloofness since Manipur was governed as UT (Union Territory) between 1949 to
1972.

iii) The threat posed by the Naga movement.

iv) Serious problems of unemployment amongst the youth.

v) Exposure of local leaders to Marxist ideas.

Naga Identity:

The Nagas in Manipur were never a signatory to the memorandum submitted by the Naga club
to the Simon Commission or by the NNC (Naga National Council) to the Cabinet Mission.

They were also not a part of AZ Phizo's plebiscite.

In fact, the Nagas rose against the Britishers in the 1930s as part of their revivalist movement
(Haipou Jadonang and Rani Gaidinliu).
It was only when the Meities started turning restive against the demands of the NSCN (National
Socialist Council of Nagaland), that the Nagas in Manipur turned assertive.

Kuki Identity:

As the Nagas and other tribal groups in the North Eastern region started getting their
homeland, the Kukis also turned assertive and started their demand for a separate Kuki
homeland.

Arunachal Pradesh (AP) Issue (01:39 PM):

The problems in AP are primarily two-fold:

i) The role of the Naga insurgency in the Tirap district.

ii) The citizenship of Chakma Hajong communities.

Both these communities are ethnically a part of North East India and the erstwhile East
Pakistan.

They were forcefully evicted to allow the construction of the Kaptai Dam in Bangladesh
following which they were allowed asylum in refugee camps in the State of AP.

The SC had twice rules to grant citizenship to both these communities, which was also cleared
by the Cabinet.

However, the State Government is opposed to this.

Contemporary status/Government's initiatives (01:49 PM):

Nagaland:

Since the ceasefire agreement with the NSCN (IM), peace talks have been ongoing around the
demands of the NSCN (IM) which include:

i) Recognition of the unique Naga history.

ii) Territorial integration of the Naga areas into greater Nagaland.

iii) Repealing AFSPA.

The Indian Government signed a Peace framework with the NSCN (IM) in 2015.

However, the issue continues to persist since the Government demands that any solution to the
Naga problem must remain within the structure of the Constitution.
The Government is also opposed to the territorial changes to the neighbouring States to
accommodate Naga interests.

Mizoram:

Following the Accord between the Union Government and the Mizo National Front, peace and
harmony prevailed in the State of Mizoram.

The MNF surrendered and joined mainstream politics.

Assam:

i) Problems of the Clause 5th of the Assam Accord.

The Indian Government doesn't have any refugee policy.

It is argued that the update to NRC will reveal a large number of illegal Bangladeshi Nationals
and in the present world, any deportation has to be done in a prescribed international protocol
and not unilaterally.

The issue of illegal immigrants has never featured in any bilateral meeting between India and
Bangladesh and there is also no treaty addressing this matter.

ii) Bodo problems:

Some Bodo demands greater autonomy while some demand separate Statehood.

So far, the Indian Government has signed three Bodo Accords (1993, 2003, and 2020).

Under the latest accord signed by the Government and the NDFB (National Democratic Front of
Bodos), the scope of BTAD (Bodoland Territorial Area District) has been expanded and it has
now been renamed BTR (Bodoland Territorial Region).

Creation of Bodo Kachari welfare councils.

Notifying Bodo language as the associate official language of the State.

Separate directorate for Bodo medium schools and the special developmental package.

iii) ULFA:

By the mid-1990s, ULFA witnessed a significant loss of public support.

The Indian army launched a joint operation with the royal Bhutani army against ULFA and
NDMP.
In 2006, the Government declared a unilateral ceasefire.

In 2011, a tripartite agreement was signed between ULFA, the State Government of Assam, and
the central Government.

Following this agreement, ULFA has now split into two factions - Pro-talks and independent.

Manipur (02:06 PM):

Contemporary issues:

i) Autonomy:

The divergent political aspirations of ethnic groups in Manipur are based on the misplaced
notion that political power is necessary to preserve cultural identity.

ii) Biased political structure:

The political structure leans towards Meitei domination (40 out of 16 assembly seats are for the
Imphal Valley dominated by the Meiteis).

iii) Property rights:

The present land laws in the State permit tribals to purchase in the Imphal valley but no Meiteis
from the valley can purchase land in the hill areas which is seen as discriminatory by the
Meiteis.

iv) Meitie's demand for ST status.

Owing to the perception of neglect, the Meiteis have asserted a demand for them to be
included in the ST list.

The Meiteis claim that they were listed as the most dominant tribe in the decennial exercises
conducted by the Britishers.

The Constitutional protection under the 5th schedule will then be extended to their land,
allying their fear of extension.

The hill tribes are opposed to their demands.

Some Meiteis are already classified as SC/OBCs.

The hill tribes claim that Meitei wants the ST status to avail of job reservations and to make
inroads into hill areas.
State Government Forest Policies (02:17 PM):

One major reason behind the recent discontentment is the notices sent by the State
Government declaring certain villages in protected areas as illegal settlements.

ROLE OF MEDIA, NETWORKING SITES TOWRADS INTERNAL SECURITY (02:44 PM):

Media - Tools and means of communication.

Why media is called 4th pillar of the democracy?

How the legislatures hold the Government accountable:

Through Zero hour, question hour, etc.

Media hold the Government accountable by directly reporting on issues, shaping public opinion
of crucial issues by debating on these issues, etc.

Track I Diplomacy - Diplomacy conducted through official channels.

Track II Diplomacy - One official channel + certain people who are considered influential.

Track III Diplomacy - When commoners are involved (the bigger tool is media).

Other roles of the media:

Community engagement.

The negative role played by the media (03:32 PM):

Misinformation - Publishing wrong information regardless of your intent.

Disinformation - Deliberately giving wrong information.

Sensationalization of news.

Media trails.

Paid news.

Sources of money for media houses - Subscription and advertisement.

Intense competitive environment - 24*7 news and breaking news.

Revenue is driven by advertisement.

Social media:

Allows two-way communication (i.e. Feedback loop).

CLASS 10
ROLE OF MEDIA TOWARDS INTERNAL SECURITY (01:08 PM):

Definition of media:

In communication, media refers to all such tools or outlets that store/transmit content.

This term typically involves elements of the mass media industry such as broadcasting
(television and radio), publishing (print media), photography, cinema, advertisements, etc.

Role of media towards internal security:

Positive role:

i) Public awareness:

Legacy media informs the general public about security issues, policies, and a nation's
preparedness, creating a more informed citizenry.

For example, in the 09/11 US attack, media outlets conducted awareness campaigns about
terrorist activities, helped citizens understand emergency procedures and reported suspicious
activity

ii) Accountability and oversight:

Investigative journalism can hold Government agencies accountable, exposing

misconduct/corruption regarding internal security.

For example, the Snowden files exposed the deep surveillance conducted by the NSA (National
Security.

iii) Crisis reporting:

Timely and accurate reporting during the crisis can help manage public order and response.

iv) Community engagement/policing:

Media plays an important role in fostering the involvement of local communities and their
cooperation with security agencies.

For example, crime-related programs broadcast by news media outlets/entertainment channels

help crowdsource tips from the public and have led to the successful resolution of multiple
cases.

v) Countering extremist propaganda:

Legacy media can be instrumental in countering extremist narratives by providing balanced

reporting and showcasing diverse viewpoints.

For example, the "Prevent Strategy" of UK-based media outlets has helped raise awareness
about the dangers of radicalization.

vi) Promoting social cohesion:

Media provides a platform for dialogue amongst different groups countering jingoistic
tendencies and mediating the tensions.

For example, meetings and fora broadcast on news media after the 2019 Christ Church
shooting helped emphasize on theme of solidarity and support amongst diverse communities.

vii) Track II/Track III diplomacy:

Media contingents have been instrumental in bridging the trust deficit between adversarial
nations through Track II/Track III diplomacy.

For example, Aman Ki Asha Campaign.

The negative role played by the media (01:24 PM):

i) Misinformation/disinformation/fake news:

Legacy media can sometimes propagate inaccurate information, intentionally or

unintentionally.

This creates panic and even animosity between communities.

For example, the 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots.

ii) Public sentiments manipulation:

The media portrayal of social issues can manipulate public sentiments affecting Government
response and hence, internal stability.
For example, the coverage of emotive issues such as immigration and communal schism can
create public outrage or fear, influencing policies that may escalate tensions.

iii) Incitement to violence:

Media coverage can sometimes sensationalize events which may create unrest or even incite
violence among groups.

For example, in the 1994 Rwandan genocide where radio and television outlets actively spread
hate speech and incited violence against the tootsie community.

iv) Polarisation and division:

Media can polarize communities by emphasizing partisan viewpoints.

For example, coverage of the 2016 US Presidential elections where media outlets aligned with
specific political ideologies.

v) Erosion of trust:

Legacy media can undermine public trust in Government security agencies by highlighting
failures without context.

vi) Compromising the efforts of law enforcement agencies:

Irresponsible coverage of security incidents can often become national security threats.

For example, coverage of the 26/11 attacks and the Kargil war coverage.

vii) Paid news/glorification of criminals:

It has become increasingly difficult to differentiate between genuine news and paid news.

Criminals often seek the help of news agencies/media to whitewash their image.

Regulation of media in India (02:12 PM):

Regulatory architecture for media houses in India:

Some of the existing bodies include:

PCI - Press Council of India.

CBFC - Central Board of Film Certification (Censor Board).

NBSA - News Broadcasting Standards Authority.

ASCI (Advertising Standards Council of India), etc.

PCI is a statutory body established under the PCI Act 1978.

Its chief task is to preserve the independence of the press and build a code of conduct for
journalists and news agencies.

Although it can receive complaints regarding violations of journalistic ethos and can inquire into
them, it can't penalize news agencies, journalists, or editors.

It can only admonish them.

CBFC regulates the certification of films and may mandate certain edits to the material.

ASCI and NBSA are self-regulating bodies.

SOCIAL MEDIA (02:48 PM):

Legacy media - Gatekeeping - Editorial board.

Social media:

Web2.0.

Allow two-way exchange of information on the web portal itself.

Websites have now become interactive.

It has led to user-generated content (i.e. big data).

You are not just a consumer of content but also a creator of content - A feedback loop.

Drain the swamp” is a campaign slogan used by Trump that resonated with millions of
disaffected grievance-ridden Republican voters.

Positive role (03:30 PM):

i) Open-source intelligence (OS-INT):

It has become a powerful tool to find information and evidence concerning several offenses
and even national security issues.

ii) To fight fake news and rumours and serve as a source of correct information, social media
offers avenues to security agencies to enhance their reach.
The Maharashtra police have set up social media labs to monitor activities including proactively
looking for youth prone to radicalization, monitoring posts that may accentuate communal
tensions, etc.

Cyber forensic labs are being set up which offer to use of social media data to keep track of the
trends related to cyber crimes.

Challenges posed by the social media (03:37 PM):

Social media has the advantage of a much bigger reach and advanced data analytics through
which information can be tailored and targeted towards the most vulnerable people.

Hence, polarization campaigns, misinformation/disinformation campaigns, etc. conducted on

social shall be far more effective than the traditional media.

Social media can rapidly transmit information, faster than any other broadcast media.

Social media has been used as a harbour by extremist groups to spread propaganda, share
extremist ideologies, radicalize people, and recruit them.

Coordination:

Social media has been used by terrorists/criminal organizations to plan and coordinate attacks.

For example, the Paris attack in 2015 involved operatives who used encrypted messaging
applications and social media to organize themselves without detection.

Compromising personal and national data.

Social media has created privacy concerns where citizen data has been used to influence voting
behaviour.

For example, Cambridge analytical issue.

Regulation of social media in India (03:49 PM):

The IT Rules prescribed under Section 69(A) of the IT Act have issued guidelines to social media
intermediaries (SMI) including OTT platforms.

These guidelines include the following key provisions:

All SMI must appoint a GRO (Grievance Redressal Officer) to deal with complaints about
objectionable content.

The complaints must be acknowledged within 24 hours and must be resolved within 15 days.
Any objectionable content has to be withdrawn within 72 hours, failing which the "safe harbour
protection" shall be terminated.

For significant SMI, a chief compliance officer is required to be appointed whose tasks are to
ensure compliance and also prepare a monthly compliance report.

The Government shall also appoint an appellate authority to look into appeals against the
decisions of the GROs.

The guidelines also mandate intermediaries develop tools to identify the "first originator of the
information".

CLASS 11
UPSC MAINS PAPER DISCUSSION (01:14 PM):

DPDP (Digital Personal Data Protection) Act.

Narcoterrorism.

Media and social media.

Border management.

CHALLENGES WITH RESPECT TO REGULATING SOCIAL MEDIA (01:22 PM):

1) The amount of information generated on social media is so huge that it is humanly

impossible to intervene and deal with it.

For example, YouTube has over 2.6 billion active users monthly, generating between 500 and
700 hours of video content every minute.

Similarly, Twitter generates 1 Petabytes of information every day.

Hence, the only solution would be technological intervention.

Reasons behind the generation of such volumes of data:

Monetization of content.

Low barriers to entry.

Lack of boundaries in cyberspace.

2) Nature of content:

Since many social media intermediaries involve themselves in the business of news
dissemination, the conventional constitutional protection of the freedom of speech and
expression shall also apply to them in cyberspace.

3) Problems with respect to jurisdiction:

The leading social media intermediaries (SMI) are multinational companies (that are registered
and incorporated in other nations).

Hence, conventionally the law of land can't be applied directly to the parent companies.

Furthermore, technologies deployed with respect to content management, and data

collection/storage involve optimization, and hence, data is continuously being transferred
across various jurisdictions.

This creates a problem of coordination for law enforcement agencies.

BORDER MANAGEMENT (01:51 PM):

What is a border:

A border is a real or artificial line that separates geographical areas and marks the end of
jurisdiction that is borders are expressions of national sovereignty.

Types of borders:

There are multiple classification parameters that separate borders primarily into two
categories:

i) Close border.

ii) Open border.

Other classifications may be open, controlled, and fortified.

Hard vs. soft border.

India shares land borders with 7 nations and the only open border is with Nepal.

Border management (03:20 PM):

Before 1947, India was one political whole where economic, cultural, and ethnic commonalities
were the main triggers behind the movement of people across this integrated landmass.

However, the hastily imposed artificial post-partition borders on this previously united entity
created unending conflict and tensions.

Borders cut across villages and even houses of inhabitants sharing ethnicity which gives rise to
peculiar conditions.

In this context, India can't apply only the security template to its borders but has to adopt a
modern management approach.

Border security means securing the social, economic, and political interests while border
management is an inclusive and comprehensive approach ranging from security, geopolitical,
economic, and other associated aspects of communities inhabiting border areas, to make
borders a tool to promote cultural and economic cooperation.

Land Border Management in India (03:27 PM):

Nodal Ministry - The Government has designated a nodal ministry that is Ministry of Home
Affairs (MHA) which has a border management division, that caters to both land and coastal
border management.

Border guarding forces (BGF):

MHA has deputed one border guarding force for every border.

Pakistan - BSF.

Bangladesh - BSF.

China - ITBP.

Myanmar - Assam Rifles.

Bhutan - SSB.

Nepal - SSB.

In the case of Pakistan and China, there are different categories of borders - International
border/LOC (Line of Control)/LAC (Line of Actual Control).

LOC with Pakistan:

The Radcliffe line between India and Pakistan was unambiguous.

It extended upwards of Punjab after the Maharaja of Kashmir exceeded India (followed by the
Pakistani invasion).

This led to the ceasefire agreement in Karachi, in 1949.

The result of which was a ceasefire line.

This ceasefire line after multiple realignments is now called LOC.

LAC with China:

India shares three fronts in China - Western, Middle, and Eastern.

Post the 1962 war, the Western Front was turned into LAC.

The Eastern Front which is the McMahon Line is not recognized by China.

Security-related aspects:

1) Nodal ministry.

2) Border gauding force.

3) Border gauding mechanism:

i) The security forces have deployed border outposts, which are defensive tactical
arrangements for area dominance.

This is achieved through constant patrolling.

ii) Integrated checkposts:

These are authorized checkpoints to regulate the movement of people and trade through
immigration checkposts and land customs stations respectively.

iii) BIMS - Border Infrastructure Management Scheme:

This is a central sector scheme that seeks to enhance security by developing border
infrastructure including logistics, fencing, flood lights, and other technological solutions where
physical fencing is not possible.

iv) CIBMS - Comprehensive integrated border management systems:

This was introduced to cover 1855 KM of borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh by
complementing human resources with a high-tech surveillance system like thermal imagers,
laser-based intruder alarms, unmanned aerial surveillance, ground sensors, etc.
4) Development-related aspects:

India has a border area development program which was launched in 1986-87 essentially to
develop border infrastructure along the western front for the deployment of BSF.

Its mandate was later expanded to include socio-economic aspects like area development
through local bodies, promoting agriculture, education, healthcare, etc.

Funds granted under the scheme are non-lapsable and the scheme is implemented at the
district level by a committee headed by the DM.

Coastal security (03:47 PM):

India has 7516 km of coastal borders which are home to around 1300 island groups, about 330
coastal village communities, and about 200 establishments related to space, atomic energy,
defense, petroleum, and other sectors, and about 250 major and minor ports.

Threats exist from a security perspective and are largely unconventional including infiltration,
piracy, capture of high-value targets, attacks on offshore installations, port security, etc.

Steps taken by the Indian Government:

The Indian Government has installed a 3-tier security architecture which includes the Indian
Navy, Indian coastguard, and coastal police.

India has also started a coastal security scheme which in addition to creating coastal police
stations shall also seek the installation of surveillance infrastructure such as radar systems,
automatic identification systems, etc.

The government has also launched initiatives such as a joint operation center, a joint command
center, and joint exercises like operation Sagar Kavach, operation Sajag, etc. for greater
cooperation between the three forces.

For the training of coastal police, a national academy of coastal policing has been set up.

Involvement of local fisherman community:

The fisherman community has to be made the eyes and ears of our security apparatus in
addition to safeguarding their economic interests and their security.

Therefore, both the Navy and ICS conduct awareness programs, register fisherman, ID their
boats, and Geotag them.

CLASS 12
BRIEF OVERVIEW AND TOPICS TO BE REFERRED [12:59 PM]

Security agencies (Vision Value added materials)

Border management

Role of external state and non-state actors

COASTAL SECURITY [01:03 PM]

The installation of a 3-tier security arrangement jointly safeguards India's maritime zones.

Evolution:

Customs Marine Organisation (CMO): The CMO was created to curb smuggling by the sea.

After the creation of the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) in 1977, the CMO was merged into the ICG.

Following the ICG Act of 1978, the ICG officially became the 4th armed security force of India.

The chief task of the ICG was to secure India's maritime zones, which have been divided into 5
coast guard regions - west, northwest, east, and Northeastern regions and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.

Each of these regions has roughly around 14 districts where ICG stations are housed.

In 2005, the Coastal Security Scheme was initiated, which amongst other things mandated the
creation of coastal police stations through marine police forces under the state government.

The marine police forces work with the ICG in a hub and spoke model i.e. the hub being the ICG
station, while the spokes are the marine police stations.

Therefore, the 3-tier architecture has the following mandate:

1. The surveillance of high seas(areas beyond the Exclusive Economic Zones) will be the
responsibility of the Indian Navy and the ICG.

2. In the territorial waters, the coast guards will protect the Indian interests.

3. The close coastal patrolling is done by state marine police.

ISSUES WITH INDIA'S COASTAL SECURITY MECHANISM [01:24 PM]

1. Lack of coherence between maritime agencies.

Both the priorities and the understanding of coastal security vary significantly amongst
maritime agencies.

The Indian Navy views big-ticket initiatives such as Joint Operation Centres, Information
Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC), and National Command Control Communication and
Intelligence Network (N3CIN) as the building blocks of coastal security, while the Indian Coast
Guard (ICG) argues that the problems are structural in nature and cannot be solved through
big-ticket initiatives alone.

Amongst other things, the ICG points out the failure of near coastal patrolling because of the
unwillingness of the state marine police forces to fully integrate into the architecture.

2. Apathy of the state governments:

A low number of marine police stations, under-utilization of patrolling vessels, absence of

shore-based infrastructure, manpower shortages, etc continue to plague India's coastal security
mechanism.

Except for the state of Tamil Nadu, other coastal states have barely done their part.

3. Skewed priorities:

Although after the Coastal Security Scheme, 2005, the coordination between agencies has
improved a little, but coastal operations tend to focus mainly on the threat of terrorist
infiltration, while other issues such as smuggling, human trafficking, maritime pollution, etc
receive less attention.

4. Lack of an apex maritime authority:

At this point, multiple maritime agencies are functioning without a full-time coastal security
manager.

The Coastal Security Bill, which envisaged the creation of a National Maritime Security
Authority (NMSA), has not been passed or implemented.

Instead, an ad-hoc arrangement in the form of the National Committee for Strengthening
Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS) continues to manage India's coastal security, but
without the full authority or comprehensive legal framework that the proposed NMSA would
have provided.
In its place, we are working with an ad-hoc arrangement in the form of the National Committee
for Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS).

*In 2002, India appointed its first National Maritime Security Coordinator, but his/her roles and
responsibilities are unknown at this point.

5. Port Security:

Port security is one of the most neglected areas in India's coastal security apparatus.

An audit conducted by the Intelligence Bureau reported that 33% of India's minor ports had no
security cover at all, while the remaining had minimal security cover.

A commercial maritime security policy is absent and hence there is no legal obligation on the
part of port operators to provide security at terminals.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS [01:47 PM]

1. Stronger involvement of coastal police i.e. strengthening of coastal police forces and their
better integration into the security architecture.

2. Legislative framework: Comprehensive legislation must be enacted that clearly lays down the
statutory duties of the stakeholders involved, including the shipping and port sectors.

3. Strengthening the Indian Coast Guard: Experts suggest that the coast guards must assume
the leadership role in maritime security and hence ambiguities in the Coast Guard Act must be
clarified.

4. National Commercial Maritime Security Policy: The govt must come out with a commercial
maritime Security Policy document.

ROLE OF EXTERNAL STATE AND NON-STATE ACTORS [01:51 PM]

India's security problems range from internal strife to external threats.

1. Inadequate and imbalance in development.

2. Identity crisis.

3. Non-accommodation of genuine regional aspirations, weakness of security architecture,

inadequate outreach by civic administration, etc create internal strife, which can then be
leveraged by vested interests including other states, especially in the context of having a hostile
neighbourhood.

CHALLENGES PRESENTED BY EXTERNAL STATE ACTORS [02:09 PM]

1. Pakistan:

a. Sir Creek Dispute: This issue is over a tidal estuary that separates the Indian state of Gujarat
from the Sindh province in Pakistan, while Pakistan claims complete control over the region,
India advocates a mid-channel approach(Thalaweg Doctrine).

b. Siachen dispute: The Ceasefire Agreement 1949 did not unambiguously delineate/chalk out
boundary beyond NJ9842, while Pakistan argues that the line should go from NJ9842 straight to
the Karakoram Pass, India insists that the line should go along the Saltoro Range before it
touches the Sino-Indian border.

c. River sharing dispute: The Indus Water Treaty brokered by the World Bank provided a clear
solution to the sharing of river water (Indus and its tributaries between India and Pakistan).

However, the construction of hydroelectric power plants routinely becomes a matter of conflict
between the 2 countries.

For example, the Kishenganga project became a matter of concern between India and Pakistan,
following which, Pakistan appealed to the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA).

2. Indo-Nepal:

[02:23 PM]

Pakistan routinely uses this open border for terrorist infiltration as well as FICN (Fake Indian
Currency Notes).

Maoist insurgency in Nepal and collaboration with Maoist insurgents in India.

Easy escape for insurgents, terrorists, and hardcore criminals primarily because it's an open
border.

Nepal recently staked claim to 3 strategically important regions from the state of Uttarakhand
i.e. Lipulekh, Kalapani, and Limpiyadhura.

3. Indo-Bhutan:
a. The Doklam plateau, which is a part of Bhutan was sought to be utilized by the Chinese to
construct an all-weather border road.

This could have given them strategic control over India's chicken neck or the Siliguri corridor.

However, this attempt was thwarted by deploying Indian troops.

b. The Southeastern parts of Bhutan consist of dense jungles, which are frequently used by
militant outfits for training and hideouts.

c. Smuggling of Chinese goods, Bhutanese cannabis, Bhutanese liquor, and forest produce.

d. Migration on the Indo-Bhutan border(

From the Indian side mostly to work as construction labour).

4.

Indo-Bangladesh:

[02:47 PM]

Some unresolved issues include:

a. Teesta River water-sharing dispute:

This river originates from Sikkim in India and flows through West Bengal before entering
Bangladesh.

It is important for the Rangpur region in Bangladesh for paddy cultivation purposes.

Two arrangements so far, to settle this river water sharing dispute have remained
unimplemented(1983 and 2011) primarily on account of opposition from the West Bengal State
government.

b. Tipaimukh Hydroelectric Power Project:

This power project was sought to be constructed over the Barak River but was opposed by the
govt of Bangladesh claiming disruption of the rhythm of the river and the adverse impact on the
downstream agriculture and ecology.

India in this regard halted the construction and assured Bangladesh that no unilateral decision
on the project would be taken.
c. Porosity of the borders leading to illegal immigration.

d. Border fencing issue:

Various stretches across Indo-Bangladesh borders are characterized by riverine tracks, swamps,
and marshes.

It is low-lying as well as inhabited by population on either side, which makes border fencing
practically impossible.

e. Bovine smuggling:

Cattle confiscated on the Indo-Bangladesh border range from 0.1 to 1 million annually.

A number of Bangladeshi nationals smuggling cattle were routinely killed by the border security
forces.

The central govt has now adopted a policy of using only non-lethal weapons which has
compounded the problem of illegal smuggling.

f. Increasing radicalisation of the Bangladeshi nationals done by organizations such as HUJI, and
Jamat-e-Islami.

This fuels anti-India sentiments in Bangladesh creating a risk of spillover in the eastern and
north-eastern belt of India.

5. Indo-Myanmar:

[03:00 PM]

a. The terrain is mountainous and densely forested making movement and development very
difficult.

b. Weak vigilance: There is a lack of physical barriers such as fences, border outposts, and even
border road infrastructure.

c. The drug menace: This area is in close proximity to the Golden Triangle making India both a
transit route as well as a market for drug trafficking.

The bulk of heroin enters India through the Moreh border in Manipur.

d. Insurgency: Insurgents routinely make use of these poorly guarded borders to cross over and
flee to Northern Myanmar.

In this respect, close ethnic ties of the Nagas, Kukis, Chins, etc also play an important part.
Thus, state actors such as China and Pakistan engage both in direct confrontation with India
and are also engaging in proxy wars with the Indian state.

CHALLENGES CREATED BY NON STATE ACTORS [03:09 PM]

Non-state actors are those who are either partly or wholly independent of sovereign powers.

Challenges to India include drug trafficking, human trafficking, weapons proliferation, left-wing
extremism, insurgency in the Northeast, terrorism, and misuse of civil society organizations.

TERRORISM [03:12 PM]

There are over 19 legal instruments globally, yet terrorism evades a clear-cut definition.

The reasons are the following:

1. The propaganda advantage:

Terrorism as a term is widely used for political effect and carries a negative connotation.

There is a propaganda advantage in calling terrorists as freedom fighters because this appeals
sentimentally to the followers of a terrorist outfit.

2. The political use and effect:

Since this term has a negative connotation, those to whom this term is applied consider it an
accusation.

They revert by calling the accuser, "the real terrorist".

This war of words only adds to the ambiguity.

3. There is an absence of clear separation between legitimate political violence and terrorism.

To put it simply, it is hard to answer where legitimate political violence stops and terrorism
begins.

The use of violence for political ends is common and the majority of definitions of the term
"terrorism" have come from state agencies, hence, they are systemically biased to exclude
governments from this definition.

4. Stretching and Travelling problems:

Writers identify terrorism based on the physical or social distance between the observer and
the act.

Hence, if political violence occurs at a significant distance from the observer, a more neutral
term is used.

However, the same act occurring closer to home is terrorism.

5. Sloppy use of an imprecise term:

Since terrorism is an attention-getting word, agencies are often guilty of using it imprecisely to
heighten the drama around any act of violence.

Implications of the Definitional Problems:

[03:29 PM]

1. Political misuse:

The lack of a definition facilitates politicization and encourages its misuse to curb non-terrorist
and sometimes even non-criminal activities.

2. Violation of the principle of legality:

In matters of jurisprudence, the principle of legality requires that no person should face
criminal trial or be punished for an act that has not been criminalized at or before the time of
its commission i.e. criminal law cannot be applied retrospectively.

3. Lack of harmony:

The absence of a clear definition means that there will be a lack of harmony between
international, national, and regional laws and even normative standards on countering
terrorism.

Thus, terrorism by and large is understood as an act of violence or a threat thereof, driven by
political motivations/ideology, seeking publicity and deliberate targeting of civilians to create a
state of terror in their minds.

UNITED NATIONS(UN) APPROACH TO TACKLING TERRORISM [03:39 PM]

In the absence of a clear definition, the UN has come up with various terminologies across
multiple resolutions describing the notion of terrorism.
For example, the General Assembly Resolution 49/60, UNSC resolution 1566.

At no point does the UN intend to suggest that these are internationally agreed definitions of
terrorism, they only serve as a guidance to member states in their counter-terrorism efforts.

UN Counter-Terrorism Strategy, 2006:

It's a living document and it was the first time that UN members agreed to adopt a common
framework in their fight against terrorism.

It has 4 key pillars:

a. To address conducive conditions.

b. Measures to prevent terrorism.

c. Build state capacity and strengthen the UN.

d. Respect for human rights.

Counter-Terrorism Implementation Taskforce:

It is a collaboration between the UN agencies and Interpol.

Other Global Measures:

1. RATS (Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure) for better coordination among SCO(Shanghai

Cooperation Organization) members.

2. Terrorist Travel Initiative: To develop border security tools to curb terrorist travel.

3. FATF(Financial Action Task Force).

4. Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism.

STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA [03:50 PM]

1. Legislative framework:

Definition of the offense of terrorism in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.

UAPA and the consequent amendments to the Act, which now has a provision to designate
individuals as terrorists.

NIA Act, 2008.

2. Institutional framework:

NATGRID: One-step destination for security and intelligence agencies.

National Cybercrime Coordination Center.

Creating the post of Chief of Defense Staff for better interagency coordination and
effectiveness.

Countering violent extremism wing under the Ministry of Home Affairs(MHA).

3. Counterfinancing of Terrorism:

Amendments to UAPA-Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.

Terror funding and fake currency cell under the NIA.

Application of PMLA (Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002) to virtual digital asset service
providers.

FIU- Financial Intelligence Unit.

FICN (Fake Indian Currency Note) Coordination Group under the MHA to share intelligence
amongst security forces.