SHORT FORMULA

MATHEMATICS FOR PGDBA

STRAIGHT LINE

1. Distance Formula: 𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 .

𝑚𝑥2 ±𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 ±𝑛𝑦1
2. Section Formula: 𝑥 = ;𝑦 = .
𝑚±𝑛 𝑚±𝑛

3. Centroid, Incentre & Excentre:

𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3
Centroid G ( , ),
3 3

𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑥2 +𝑐𝑥3 𝑎𝑦1 +𝑏𝑦2 +𝑐𝑦3

Incentre ( , )
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
−𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑥2 +𝑐𝑥3 −𝑎𝑦1 +𝑏𝑦2 +𝑐𝑦3
Excentre 𝐼1 ( , )
−𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 −𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
4. Area of a Triangle: ΔABC = |𝑥2 𝑦2 1|
2
𝑥3 𝑦3 1

5. Slope Formula:
𝑦1 −𝑦2
(i) Line Joining two points (𝑥1 𝑦1 )&(𝑥2 𝑦2 ), 𝑚 =
𝑥1 −𝑥2
 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
6. Condition of collinearity of three points: |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝑚1 −𝑚2
7. Angle between two straight lines : tan 𝜃 = | |.
1+𝑚1 𝑚2

8. Two Lines : 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑎′ 𝑥 + 𝑏 ′ 𝑦 + 𝑐 ′ = 0 two lines

a b c
1.parallel if = ≠ ′.
a′ b′ c

𝑐1 −𝑐2
2. Distance between two parallel lines = | |.
√𝑎2 +𝑏2

3. Perpendicular : If 𝑎𝑎′ + 𝑏𝑏 ′ = 0.

9. A point and line:

𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
1 Distance between point and line = | |.
√𝑎2 +𝑏2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
2 Reflection of a point about a line: = = −2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 +𝑏2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
3 Foot of the perpendicular from a point on the line is = =−
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 +𝑏2
𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦+𝑐 𝑎′ 𝑥+𝑏′ 𝑦+𝑐 ′
10. Bisectors of the angles between two lines: =±
√𝑎2 +𝑏2 √𝑎′2 +𝑏′2

11.Condition of Concurrency : of three straight lines 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑖 = 1,2,3 is

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 0.
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
12.A Pair of straight lines through origin: 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 0 If 𝜃 is the acute angle
2√ℎ2 −𝑎𝑏
between the pair of straight lines, then tan 𝜃 = | |.
𝑎+𝑏

CIRCLE
1. Intercepts made by Circle 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 on the Axes:
(a) 2√𝑔2 − 𝑐 on 𝑥-axis

(b) 2√𝑓 2 − 𝑐 on 𝑦-aixs

2. Parametric Equations of a Circle: 𝑥 = ℎ + 𝑟cos 𝜃; 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑟sin 𝜃

3. Tangent :
(a) Slope form : 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± 𝑎√1 + 𝑚2
(b) Point form : 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 = 𝑎2 or 𝑇 = 0
(c) Parametric form : 𝑥cos 𝛼 + 𝑦sin 𝛼 = 𝑎.

4. Pair of Tangents from a Point: 𝑆𝑆1 = 𝑇 2 .

5. Length of a Tangent : Length of tangent is √𝑠1

6. Director Circle: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎2 for 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2

7. Chord of Contact: 𝑇 = 0
2𝐿𝑅
1 Length of chord of contact =
√𝑅 2 +𝐿2
RL3
2 Area of the triangle formed by the pair of the tangents & its chord of contact =
R2 +L2

2𝑅𝐿
3 Tangent of the angle between the pair of tangents from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = ( )
𝐿2 −𝑅 2
4 Equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle 𝑃𝑇1 𝑇2 is : (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 + 𝑔) +
(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 + 𝑓) = 0.
8. Condition of orthogonality of Two Circles: 2𝑔1 𝑔2 + 2𝑓1 𝑓2 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 .
9. Radical Axis : 𝑠1 − 𝑆2 = 0 i.e. 2(𝑔1 − 𝑔2 )𝑥 + 2(𝑓1 − 𝑓2 )𝑦 + (𝑐1 − 𝑐2 ) = 0.
10.Family of Circles: 𝑆1 + 𝐾𝑆2 = 0, 𝑆 + 𝐾𝐿 = 0.

PARABOLA
1. Equation of standard parabola :
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥, Vertex is (0,0), focus is (𝑎, 0), Directrix is 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 and Axis is 𝑦 = 0
Length of the latus rectum = 4𝑎, ends of the latus rectum are 𝐿(𝑎, 2𝑎)&𝐿′ (𝑎, −2𝑎).
2. Parametric Representation: 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 &𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡
3. Tangents to the Parabola 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 :
𝑎
1 Slope form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + (𝑚 ≠ 0)
𝑚

2 Parametric form 𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑡 2
3 Point form 𝑇 = 0
4. Normals to the parabola 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 :
𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ); 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚3 𝑎𝑡(𝑎𝑚2 , −2𝑎𝑚); 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑥 =
2𝑎

2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 3 𝑎𝑡(𝑎𝑡 2 , 2𝑎𝑡).

ELLIPSE
𝑥2 𝑦2
1. Standard Equation : 2
+ = 1, where 𝑎 > 𝑏&𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 (1 − 𝑒 2 ).
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑏2 𝑎
Eccentricity: 𝑒 = √1 − , (0 < 𝑒 < 1), Directrices : 𝑥 = ± .
𝑎2 𝑒

Focii : 𝑆 ≡ (±𝑎𝑒, 0). Length of, major axes = 2𝑎 and minor 𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑠 = 2𝑏
Vertices: 𝐴′ ≡ (−𝑎, 0)&𝐴 ≡ (𝑎, 0).
2𝑏2
Latus Rectum : = = 2𝑎(1 − 𝑒 2 )
𝑎

2. Auxiliary Circle : x 2 + y 2 = a2
3. Parametric Representation : 𝑥 = 𝑎cos 𝜃&𝑦 = 𝑏sin 𝜃
4. Position of a Point w.r.t. an Ellipse:
𝑥12 𝑦12
The point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse according as: 2
+ − 1 ><
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑜𝑟 = 0.
𝑥2 𝑦2
5. Line and an Ellipse: The line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 meets the ellipse 2
+ = 1 in two points
𝑎 𝑏2

real, coincident or imaginary according as 𝑐 2 is <= 𝑜𝑟 > 𝑎2 𝑚2 + 𝑏 2 .

 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
6. Tangents: Slope form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± √𝑎2 𝑚2 + 𝑏 2 , Point form : + = 1,
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥cos 𝜃 𝑦sin 𝜃
Parametric form: + =1
𝑎 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑥 𝑏2 𝑦
7. Normals: − = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 , 𝑎𝑥 ⋅ sec 𝜃 − 𝑏𝑦cosec 𝜃 = (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ), 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 −
𝑥1 𝑦1

(𝑎2 −𝑏2 )𝑚
.
√𝑎2 +𝑏2 𝑚2

8. Director Circle: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

HYPERBOLA
𝑥2 𝑦2
1. Standard Equation: Standard equation of the hyperbola is 2
− = 1, where 𝑏 2 =
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑎2 (𝑒 2 − 1).
𝑎
Focii : 𝑆 ≡ (±𝑎𝑒, 0) Directrices : 𝑥 = ±
𝑒

Vertices: 𝐴 = (±𝑎, 0)
2𝑏2
Latus Rectum (ℓ): ℓ = = 2𝑎(𝑒 2 − 1)
𝑎

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
2. Conjugate Hyperbola: 2
− =1& − + = 1 are conjugate hyperbolas of each.
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑎 2 𝑏2

3. Auxiliary Circle: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .

4. Parametric Representation : 𝑥 = 𝑎sec 𝜃&𝑦 = 𝑏tan 𝜃

5. Position of A Point 'P' w.r.t. A Hyperbola:

x21 y21
S1 ≡ 2
− − 1 >, = or < 0 according as the point (x1 y1 ) lies inside, on or outside the
a b2

curve.

6. Tangents :
(i) Slope Form : 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± √𝑎2 𝑚2 − 𝑏 2
xx1 𝑦1
(ii) Point Form: at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is − = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥sec 𝜃 𝑦tan 𝜃
(iii) Parametric Form : − = 1.
𝑎 𝑏
7. Normals:
𝑎2 𝑥 𝑏2 𝑦
(a) at the point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is + = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 2 .
𝑥1 𝑦1
𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑦
(b) at the point 𝑃(𝑎sec 𝜃, 𝑏tan 𝜃) is + = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 2 .
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
(𝑎2 +𝑏2 )𝑚
(c) Equation of normals in terms of its slope ' 𝑚 ' are 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± .
√𝑎2 −𝑏2 𝑚2

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥2 𝑦2
8. Asymptotes : + = 0 and − = 0. Pair of asymptotes: 2
− = 0.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏2

9. Rectangular Or Equilateral Hyperbola : 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 2 , eccentricity is √2.

Vertices : (±c ± c); Focii : (±√2c, ±√2c). Directrices : 𝑥 + 𝑦 = ±√2c
Latus Rectum (𝐼): ℓ = 2√2c = T. A. = C. A.
Parametric equation 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑐/𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
Equation of the tangent at 𝑃(𝑥1 𝑦1 ) is + = 2& at 𝑃(𝑡) is + 𝑡𝑦 = 2𝑐.
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑡

Equation of the normal at 𝑃(𝑡) is 𝑥𝑡 3 − 𝑦𝑡 = 𝑐(𝑡 4 − 1).

Chord with a given middle point as (ℎ, 𝑘) is 𝑘𝑥 + ℎ𝑦 = 2ℎ𝑘.

LIMIT OF FUNCTION
1. Limit of a function 𝒇(𝒙) is said to exist as 𝒙 → a when, Limit ℎ→0+ 𝑓(𝑎 − ℎ) =
Limit ℎ→0+ 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = some finite value 𝑀.
(Left hand limit) (Right hand limit)
2. Indeterminant Forms:
0 ∞
, , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, ∞0∘ , 0∘ , and 1∞ .
0 ∞

3. Standard Limits:
sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 Limit tan−1 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 1 ℓ𝑛(1 + 𝑥)
Limit 𝑥→0 = Limit 𝑥→0 = = Limit 𝑥→0 = Limit 𝑥→0 = Limit 𝑥→0 =1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑎𝑥 − 1 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛
Limit 𝑥→0 (1 + 𝑥)1/𝑥 = Limit 𝑥→∞ (1 + ) = 𝑒, Limit 𝑥→0 = log 𝑒 𝑎, 𝑎 > 0, Limit 𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 .
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥−𝑎
4. Limits Using Expansion
𝑥ln 𝑎 𝑥 2 ln2 𝑎 𝑥 3 ln3 𝑎
(i) 𝑎 𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯….𝑎 > 0
1! 2! 3!
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
(ii) 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯…
1! 2! 3!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
(iii) ln (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + (v) cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − + ⋯. for −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
2 3 4 2! 4! 6!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
(iv) sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯…
3! 5! 7!
𝑥3 2𝑥 5
(vi) tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + ⋯.
3 15
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
(vii) tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3 5 7
12 12 ⋅32 12 ⋅32 ⋅52
(viii) sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥7 + ⋯ …
3! 5! 7!
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(x) for |𝑥| < 1, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ … … … ∞
1.2 1.2.3

5. Limits of form 1∞ , 00 , ∞0
Also for (1) )⋆ type of problems we can use following rules.lim (1 + 𝑥)1/𝑥 =
𝑥→0
lim [𝑓(𝑥)−1]𝑔(𝑥)
𝑒, lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥) , where 𝑓(𝑥) → 1; 𝑔(𝑥) → ∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑎 = lim = 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

6. Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Play Theorem:

If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥)∀𝑥& Limit 𝑓(𝑥) = ℓ = Limitℎ(𝑥) then Limit 𝑔(𝑥) = ℓ.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

METHOD OF DIFFERENTIATION
1. Differentiation of some elementary functions
𝑑
1 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
3 (ℓln |𝑥|) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1
4 (log 𝑎 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥ℓ𝑛𝑎
𝑑
5 (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑
6 (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
7 (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
8 (cosec 𝑥) = −cosec 𝑥cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
9 (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
10 (cot 𝑥) = −cosec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

2. Basic Theorems
𝑑
1 (𝑓 ± 𝑔) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ± 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
2 (𝑘𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
3 (𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
4 (
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
)= 𝑔2 (𝑥)
𝑑
5 (𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Derivative Of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

𝑑sin−1 𝑥 1 𝑑cos −1 𝑥 1
= , =− , for − 1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑tan−1 𝑥 1 𝑑cot −1 𝑥 1
= , = − (𝑥 ∈ 𝑅)
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑sec −1 𝑥 1 𝑑cosec −1 𝑥 1
= , =− , for 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1

3. Differentiation using substitution

Following substitutions are normally used to sumplify these expression.
𝜋 𝜋
(i) √x 2 + a2 by substituting x = atan 𝜃, where − < 𝜃 <
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
(ii) √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 by substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎sin 𝜃, where − ≤ 𝜃 ≤
2 2
 𝜋
(iii) √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 by substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎sec 𝜃, where 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋], 𝜃 ≠
2

𝑥+𝑎
(iv) √ by substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎cos 𝜃, where 𝜃 ∈ (0, 𝜋].
𝑎−𝑥

4. Parametric Differentiation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝜃
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝜃)&𝑥 = 𝑔(𝜃) where 𝜃 is a parameter, then = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝜃

5. Derivative of one function with respect to another

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 𝑓′ (𝑥)
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥); 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥) then = = .
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧/𝑑𝑥 𝑔′ (𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)

6. If 𝐹(𝑥) = |𝑙(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥) 𝑛(𝑥) |, where 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 are differentiable
𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑤(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑥) ℎ′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)
functions of 𝑥 then 𝐹 (𝑥) = | 𝑙(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥) 𝑛(𝑥) | + |𝑙 ′ (𝑥) 𝑚′ (𝑥) 𝑛′ (𝑥)| +
′

𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑤(𝑥) 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑤(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)
| 𝑙(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥) 𝑛(𝑥) |
𝑢′ (𝑥) 𝑣 ′ (𝑥) 𝑤 ′ (𝑥)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

1. Equation of tangent and normal

Tangent at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is given by (𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ); when, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) is real.
1
And normal at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is (𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) = − (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), when 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) is nonzero real.
𝑓′ (𝑥1 )

2. Tangent from an external point

Given a point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) which does not lie on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then the equation of
possible tangents to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), passing through (𝑎, 𝑏) can be found by solving
for the point of contact 𝑄.
𝑓(ℎ) − 𝑏
𝑓 ′ (ℎ) =
ℎ−𝑎
 𝑓(ℎ)−𝑏
And equation of tangent is 𝑦 − 𝑏 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)
ℎ−𝑎

3. Length of tangent, normal, subtangent, subnormal

1
(i) PT = |k|√1 + = Length of Tangent
m2

(ii) PN = |k|√1 + m2 = Length of Normal

k
(iii) TM = | | = Length of subtangent
m

(iv) 𝑀𝑁 = |km| = Length of subnormal.

4. Angle between the curves
Angle between two intersecting curves is defined as the acute angle between their
tangents (or normals) at the point of intersection of two curves (as shown in figure).
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
tan 𝜃 = | |
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2

5. Shortest distance between two curves

Shortest distance between two non-intersecting differentiable curves is always along their
common normal. (Wherever defined)
6. Rolle's Theorem :
If a function 𝑓 defined on [𝑎, 𝑏] is
(i) continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]
(ii) derivable on (𝑎, 𝑏) and
 (iii) f(a) = f(b),
then there exists at least one real number 𝑐 between a and 𝑏(𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏) such that
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0
7. Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem (LMVT) :
If a function 𝑓 defined on [𝑎, 𝑏] is
(i) continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and
(ii) derivable on (𝑎, 𝑏)
then there exists at least one real numbers between a and 𝑏(𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
𝑏−𝑎

8. Useful Formulae of Mensuration to Remember :

1. Volume of a cuboid = ℓ bh.

2. Surface area of cuboid = 2(ℓ𝑏 + 𝑏ℎ + ℎℓ).

3. Volume of cube = a3

4. Surface area of cube = 6𝐚2

1
5. Volume of a cone = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.
3

6. Curved surface area of cone = 𝜋rℓ(ℓ = slant height )

7. Curved surface area of a cylinder = 2𝜋rh.

8. Total surface area of a cylinder = 2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r 2 .

4
9. Volume of a sphere = 𝜋𝑟 3 .
3

10.Surface area of a sphere = 4𝜋𝑟 2 .

1
11.Area of a circular sector = 𝑟 2 𝜃, when 𝜃 is in radians.
2
 12.Volume of a prism = ( area of the base ) × ( height ).

13.Lateral surface area of a prism = ( perimeter of the base ) × ( height ).

14.Total surface area of a prism = (lateral surface area ) + 2 (area of the base ) (Note
that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangle). 9 Short Formula (Physics)

1
15.Volume of a pyramid = (area of the base ) × ( height)
3

1
16.Curved surface area of a pyramid = (perimeter of the base) × ( slant height)
2

(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles).

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
𝑑
1. If 𝑓𝑔 are functions of 𝑥 such that 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) then, ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑐 ⇔ {𝑔(𝑥) +
𝑑𝑥

𝑐} = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑐 is called the constant of integration.

2. Standard Formula:

(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
(i) ∫ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑎(𝑛+1)

𝑑𝑥 1
(ii) ∫ = ln (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑎

1
(iii) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑎

1 𝑎𝑝𝑥+𝑞
(iv) ∫ 𝑎𝑝𝑥+𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐; 𝑎 > 0
𝑝 ℓ𝑛𝑎

1
(v) ∫ sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

1
(vi) ∫ cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎
 1
(vii) ∫ tan (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = ℓ𝑛sec (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

1
(viii) ∫ cot (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = ℓ𝑛sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

1
(ix) ∫ sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = tan (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

1
(x) ∫ cosec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − cot (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

𝜋 𝑥
(xiii) ∫ sec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ℓ𝑛(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥) + 𝑐 OR ℓ𝑛 tan ( + ) + 𝑐
4 2

𝑥
(xiv) ∫ cosec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ℓ𝑛(cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥) + 𝑐 OR ℓ𝑛tan + 𝑐 OR −ℓ𝑛(cosec 𝑥 + cot 𝑥) +
2

𝑑𝑥 𝑥
(xv) ∫ = sin−1 +𝑐
√𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
(xvi) ∫ = tan−1 +𝑐
𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
(xvii) ∫ = sec −1 +𝑐
|𝑥|√𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎

dx
(xviii) ∫ = ℓn[x + √x 2 + a2 ] + c
√x2 +a2

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑎+𝑥
(xix) ∫ = ln [𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ] + 𝑐 (𝑥𝑥) ∫ = ℓ𝑛 | |+𝑐
√𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−𝑎
(xxi) ∫ = ℓ𝑛 | |+𝑐
𝑥 2 −𝑎2 2𝑎 𝑥+𝑎

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
(xxii) ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 +𝑐
2 2 𝑎

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥+√𝑥 2 +𝑎2
(xxiii) ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + ℓ𝑛 ( )+𝑐
2 2 𝑎

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥+√𝑥 2 −𝑎2
(xxiv) ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − ℓ𝑛 ( )+𝑐
2 2 𝑎
3. Integration by Substitutions

If we substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡

4. Integration by Part :

𝑑
∫ (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)∫ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ( (𝑓(𝑥))∫ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5. Integration of type ∫ ,∫ , ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 √𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

𝑏
Make the substitution 𝑥 + =𝑡
2𝑎

6. Integration of type
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
∫ 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑑𝑥, ∫ (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2
√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑏
Make the substitution 𝑥 + = 𝑡, then split the integral as some of two integrals one containing
2𝑎

the linear term and the other containing constant term.

7. Integration of trigonometric functions

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(i) ∫ OR ∫ OR ∫ put tan 𝑥 = 𝑡.
𝑎+𝑏sin2 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏cos2 𝑥 𝑎sin2 𝑥+𝑏sin 𝑥cos 𝑥+𝑐cos2 𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
(ii) ∫ OR ∫ OR ∫ put tan =𝑡
𝑎+𝑏sin 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏cos 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏sin 𝑥+𝑐cos 𝑥 2

𝑎⋅cos 𝑥+𝑏⋅sin 𝑥+𝑐 𝑑

(iii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥. Express 𝑁𝑟 ≡ 𝐴(𝐷𝑟) + 𝐵 (Dr) +𝑐& proceed.
ℓ⋅cos 𝑥+𝑚⋅sin 𝑥+𝑛 𝑑𝑥

8. Integration of type
x2 ±1
∫ dx where 𝐾 is any constant.
x4 +𝐾Kx2 +1

1
Divide Nr & Dr by 𝑥 2 & put 𝑥 ∓ = 𝑡.
𝑥
9. Integration of type

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ OR ∫ ; 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝑡 2 .
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)√𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)√𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞

10.Integration of type

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1
∫ , put 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = ; ∫ , 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑥 =
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)√𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑡 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)√𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞 𝑡

DEFINITE INTEGRATION
Properties of definite integral

𝑏 𝑏
1. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝑏 𝑎
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
3. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 2∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
4. ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(−𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = { 0
0, 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

𝑏 𝑏
5. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑎
6. ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑎
2𝑎 𝑎 2∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
7. ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = { 0
0, 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

8. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a periodic function with period 𝑇, then

 𝑛𝑇 𝑇 𝑎+𝑛𝑇 𝑇
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧, ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
0 0 𝑎 0
𝑛𝑇 𝑇 𝑎+𝑛𝑇 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛 − 𝑚) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧, ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
𝑚𝑇 0 𝑛𝑇 0
𝑏+𝑛𝑇 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎+𝑛𝑇 𝑎

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
9. If 𝜓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝜙(𝑥) for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then ∫𝑎 𝜓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫𝑎 𝜙(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑏
10.If 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then 𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎)

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
11.|∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥| ≤ ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 12. If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 on [𝑎, 𝑏] then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≥ 0

ℎ(𝑥) 𝑑𝐹(𝑥)
Leibnitz Theorem : If 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡, then = ℎ′ (𝑥)𝑓(ℎ(𝑥)) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
𝑑𝑥

BASICS

Intervals :

Intervals are basically subsets of R and are commonly used in solving inequalities or in finding
domains. If there are two numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎 < 𝑏, we can define four types of
intervals as follows :

Symbols used

i. Open interval : (𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} i.e. end points are not included. () or ] [
ii. Closed interval : [𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} i.e. end points are also included. []
This is possible only when both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are finite.
iii. Open-closed interval : (𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} ( ] or ]]
iv. Closed - open interval: : 𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑥: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏 } [ ) or [ [
 The infinite intervals are defined as follows:
(i) (𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑥 > 𝑎}
(ii) [𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎}
(iii) (−∞, 𝑏) = {𝑥: 𝑥 < 𝑏}
(iv) (∞, 𝑏] = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
(v) (−∞, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅}

Properties of Modulus :

For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎 |𝑎|
|a| ≥ 0, |a| = | − a|,|𝑎| ≥ 𝑎, |𝑎| ≥ −𝑎 , |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎||𝑏|, | | =
𝑏 |𝑏|

|𝑎 + 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏|,|𝑎 − 𝑏| ≥ ||𝑎| − |𝑏||

Trigonometric Functions of Sum or Difference of Two Angles:

(a) sin (𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴sin 𝐵 ∴ 2sin 𝐴cos 𝐵 = sin (𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin (𝐴 −
𝐵) and and 2cos 𝐴sin 𝐵 = sin (𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin (𝐴 − 𝐵)
(b) cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos Acos 𝐵 ∓ sin Asin 𝐵
∴ 2cos 𝐴cos 𝐵 = cos (𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) and 2sin 𝐴sin 𝐵 = cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) −
cos (𝐴 + 𝐵)
(c) sin2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐵 = cos 2 𝐵 − cos 2 𝐴 = sin (𝐴 + 𝐵) ⋅ sin (𝐴 − 𝐵)
(d) cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐵 = cos 2 𝐵 − sin2 𝐴 = cos (𝐴 + 𝐵) ⋅ cos (𝐴 − 𝐵)
cot 𝐴cot 𝐵∓1
(e) cot (𝐴 ± 𝐵) =
cot 𝐵±cot 𝐴
tan 𝐴+tan 𝐵+tan 𝐶−tan 𝐴tan 𝐵tan 𝐶
(f) tan (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) = .
1−tan 𝐴tan 𝐵−tan 𝐵tan 𝐶−tan 𝐶tan 𝐴

Factorization of the Sum or Difference of Two Sines or Cosines:

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
(a) sin 𝐶 + sin 𝐷 = 2sin cos
2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
(b) sin 𝐶 − sin 𝐷 = 2cos sin
2 2
 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
(c) cos 𝐶 + cos 𝐷 = 2cos cos
2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
(d) cos 𝐶 − cos 𝐷 = −2 sin sin
2 2

Multiple and Sub-multiple Angles:

𝜃
(a) cos 2𝐴 = cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 = 2cos 2 𝐴 − 1 = 1 − 2sin2 𝐴; 2cos2 =1+
2
𝜃
cos 𝜃, 2sin2 = 1 − cos 𝜃.
2
2tan 𝐴 1−tan2 𝐴
(b) sin 2𝐴 = , cos 2𝐴 =
1+tan2 𝐴 1+tan2 𝐴

(c) sin 3𝐴 = 3sin 𝐴 − 4sin3 𝐴

(d) cos 3𝐴 = 4cos3 𝐴 − 3cos 𝐴
3tan 𝐴−tan3 𝐴
(e) tan 3𝐴 =
1−3tan2 𝐴

Important Trigonometric Ratios:

(a) sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0 ; cos 𝑛𝜋 = (−1); tan 𝑛𝜋 = 0, where 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼

𝜋 √3−1 5𝜋 𝜋 √3+1
(b) sin 15∘ or sin = = cos 75∘ or cos ; cos 15∘ or cos = = sin 75∘ or
12 2√2 12 12 2 √2

5𝜋 √3−1 √3+1
sin ; tan 15∘ = = 2√3 = cot 75∘ ; tan 75∘ = = 2 + √3 = cot 15∘
12 √3+1 √3−1
𝜋 √5−1 𝜋 √5+1
(c) sin or sin 18∘ = &cos 36∘ or cos =
10 4 5 4

Range of Trigonometric Expression:

−√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ≤ 𝑎sin 𝜃 + 𝑏cos 𝜃 ≤ √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Sine and Cosine Series :

𝑛𝛽
sin
sin 𝛼 + sin (𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin (𝛼 + 2𝛽) + ⋯ … + sin (𝛼 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛 − 1𝛽) = 2
𝛽 sin (𝛼 +
sin
2

𝑛−1
𝛽)
2
 𝑛𝛽
sin
cos 𝛼 + cos (𝛼 + 𝛽) + cos (𝛼 + 2𝛽) + ⋯ … + cos (𝛼 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛 − 1𝛽) = 2
𝛽 cos (𝛼 +
sin
2

𝑛−1
𝛽)
2

Trigonometric Equations

Principal Solutions: Solutions which lie in the interval [0,2𝜋) are called Principal
solutions. General Solution :
𝜋 𝜋
(i) sin 𝜃 = sin 𝛼 ⇒ 𝜃 = n𝜋 + (−1)n 𝛼 where 𝛼 ∈ [− , ] , n ∈ I.
2 2

(ii) cos 𝜃 = cos 𝛼 ⇒ 𝜃 = 2n𝜋 ± 𝛼 where 𝛼 ∈ [0, 𝜋], n ∈ I.

𝜋 𝜋
(iii) tan 𝜃 = tan 𝛼 ⇒ 𝜃 = n𝜋 + 𝛼 where 𝛼 ∈ (− , ) , n ∈ I.
2 2

(iv) sin2 𝜃 = sin2 𝛼, cos 2 𝜃 = cos 2 𝛼, tan2 𝜃 = tan2 𝛼 ⇒ 𝜃 = n𝜋 ± 𝛼.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Quadratic Equation : 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= , The expression 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 𝐷 is called discriminant of quadratic
2𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
equation. If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots, then (a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − (b) 𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎 𝑎

A quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼&𝛽, is (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0 i.e. 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 +

𝛼𝛽 = 0

Nature of Roots:

Consider the quadratic equation, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 having 𝛼, 𝛽 as its roots; 𝐷 ≡ 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐

Roots are equal 𝛼 = 𝛽 = −𝑏/2𝑎 Roots are unequal

Common Roots:

Consider two quadratic equations 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 = 0&𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 = 0.

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐
(i) If two quadratic equations have both roots common, then = = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑐1 𝑎2 −𝑐2 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐2 −𝑏2 𝑐1
(ii) If only one root 𝛼 is common, then 𝛼 = =
𝑎1 𝑏2 −𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎2 −𝑐2 𝑎1

Range of Quadratic Expression 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄.

Range in restricted domain: Given 𝑥 ∈ [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ]
𝑏
a) If − ∉ [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] then, 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ ⌊min{𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 )}, max{𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 )}⌋
2𝑎
𝑏 𝐷 𝐷
b) If − ∈ [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] then, 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ [min {𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ), − } , max {𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ), − }]
2𝑎 4𝑎 4𝑎

Location of Roots:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎 > 0&𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅.
(i) Conditions for both the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to be greater than a specified number' 𝑥0 ' are
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0; 𝑓(𝑥0 ) > 0&(−𝑏/2𝑎) > 𝑥0 .
 (ii) Conditions for both the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to be smaller than a specified number ' 𝑥0 '
are 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0; 𝑓(𝑥0 ) > 0&(−𝑏/2𝑎) < 𝑥0 .
(iii) Conditions for both roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to lie on either side of the number ' 𝑥0 ' (in
other words the number ' 𝑥0 ' lies between the roots of (𝑥) = 0 ), is 𝑓(𝑥0 ) < 0.
(iv) Conditions that both roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to be confined between the numbers 𝑥1 and
𝑥2 , (𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ) are 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0; 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 0; 𝑓(𝑥2 ) > 0&𝑥1 < (−𝑏/2𝑎) < 𝑥2 .
(v) Conditions for exactly one root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to lie in the interval (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) i.e. 𝑥1 < 𝑥 <
𝑥2 is 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) < 0.

SEQUENCE & SERIES

An arithmetic progression (A.P.) : 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, … … . 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 is an A.P.

Let a be the first term and 𝑑 be the common difference of an A.P., then 𝑛th term = 𝑡𝑛 =
𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 The sum of first 𝒏 terms of are A.P.
𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] = [𝑎 + ℓ]
2 2

𝑟 th term of an A.P. when sum of first 𝑟 terms is given is 𝑡𝑟 = 𝑆𝑟 − 𝑆𝑟−1 .

Properties of A.P.

(i) If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are in A.P. ⇒ 2𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐& if 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 are in A.P. ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 𝑏 + 𝑐.

(ii) Three numbers in A.P. can be taken as 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑; four numbers in A.P. can be
taken as 𝑎 − 3𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑; five numbers in A.P. are 𝑎 − 2𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 +
𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑& six terms in A.P. are a −5𝑑, 𝑎 − 3𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎 + 5𝑑 etc.
(iii) Sum of the terms of an A.P. equidistant from the beginning & end = sum of first &
last term.

Arithmetic Mean (Mean or Average) (A.M.):

If three terms are in A.P. then the middle term is called the A.M. between the other two,
so if 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are in A.P., b is A.M. of a & c.
 𝐧 - Arithmetic Means Between Two Numbers: If 𝑎, 𝑏 are any two given numbers
&𝑎, 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 , 𝑏 are in 𝐴. 𝑃. then 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … 𝐴𝑛 are the n A.M.'s between a & b. 𝐴1 =
𝑏−𝑎 2(𝑏−𝑎) 𝑛(𝑏−𝑎)
𝑎+ , 𝐴2 = 𝑎 + , … . . 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎 +
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1

∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝐴𝑟 = 𝑛𝐴 where 𝐴 is the single A.M. between 𝑎&𝑏.

Geometric Progression: a, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 , … … is a G.P. with a as the first term & 𝑟 as

common ratio.

(i) nth term = ar n−1

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
, 𝑟≠1
(ii) Sum of the first 𝑛 terms i.e. 𝑆𝑛 = { 𝑟−1
𝑛𝑎, 𝑟=1

a
(iii) Sum of an infinite G.P. when |r| < 1 is given by S∞ = (|r| < 1).
1−r

Geometric Means (Mean Proportional) (G.M.):

If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 > 0 are in G.P., b is the G.M. between a & 𝑐, then 𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑐

n-Geometric Means Between positive number 𝒂, 𝒃 : If a, b are two given numbers &
𝑎, 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , … . , 𝐺𝑛 , b are in G.P.. Then 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , … . , 𝐺𝑛 are 𝑛 G.M.s between a & b.
𝐺1 = 𝑎(𝑏/𝑎)1/𝑛+1 , 𝐺2 = 𝑎(𝑏/𝑎)2/𝑛+1 , … … , 𝐺𝑛 = 𝑎(𝑏/𝑎)𝑛/𝑛+1

Harmonic Mean (H.M.):

2𝑎𝑐
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are in H.P., 𝑏 is the H.M. between a & 𝑐, then 𝑏 = .
𝑎+𝑐
1 1 1 1 1
H.M. H of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … . 𝑎𝑛 is given by = [ + + ⋯….+ ]
𝐻 𝑛 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛

Relation between means :

𝐺 2 = 𝐴𝐻, A.M. ≥ G.M. ≥ H.M. and A.M. = G.M. = H.M. if 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 =

⋯ … … … = 𝑎𝑛
Important Results

(i) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 (𝑎𝑟 ± 𝑏𝑟 ) = ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑎𝑟 ± ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑏𝑟 . (ii) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑘𝑎𝑟 = 𝑘∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑎𝑟 . (iii) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑘; where
𝑘 is a constant.
𝑛(𝑛+1)
(ii) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … . +𝑛 = (v) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 +
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
⋯ … … . +𝑛2 =
6
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
(iii) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑛3 =
4

(iv) 2∑𝑛𝑖<𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ … . . +𝑎𝑛 )2 − (𝑎1 2 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ … . +𝑎𝑛2 )

BINOMIAL THEOREM
1. Statement of Binomial theorem : If 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒏 ∈ 𝑵, then
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑛
𝐶0 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 0 + 𝑛 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + 𝑛 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑎0 𝑏 𝑛
= ∑𝑛𝑟=0 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
2. Properties of Binomial Theorem :
𝑛
(i) General term : 𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
(ii) Middle term (s) :
𝑛+2
(a) If n is even, there is only one middle term, which is ( ) th term.
2
n+1 n+1
(b) If n is odd, there are two middle terms, which are ( ) th and ( + 1) th terms.
2 2
𝑛! 𝑟
3. Multinomial Theorem: (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ … … . 𝑥𝑘 )𝑛 = ∑𝑟1+𝑟2+⋯+𝑟𝑘=𝑛 𝑥11 ⋅
𝑟1 !𝑟2 !…𝑟𝑘 !
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥22 … 𝑥𝑘𝑘
𝑛+𝑘−1
Here total number of terms in the expansion = 𝐶𝑘−1

4. Application of Binomial Theorem :

If (√𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑛 = 𝐼 + 𝑓 where 𝐼 and 𝐧 are positive integers, 𝐧 being odd and 0 < 𝑓 < 1 then
(𝐼 + 𝑓)𝑓 = 𝑘 𝑛 where 𝐴 − 𝐵2 = 𝑘 > 0 and √𝐴 − 𝐵 < 1.
If 𝑛 is an even integer, then (𝐼 + 𝑓)(1 − 𝑓) = 𝑘 𝑛
5. Properties of Binomial Coefficients :
(i) 𝑛 𝐶0 + 𝑛 𝐶1 + 𝑛 𝐶2 + ⋯ … . . + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 = 2𝑛
(ii) 𝑛 𝐶0 − 𝑛 𝐶1 + 𝑛 𝐶2 − 𝑛 𝐶3 + ⋯ … … … + (−1)𝑛 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 = 0
(iii) 𝑛 𝐶0 + 𝑛 𝐶2 + 𝑛 𝐶4 + ⋯ = 𝑛
𝐶1 + 𝑛 𝐶3 + 𝑛 𝐶5 + ⋯ . = 2𝑛−1
(iv) 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 + 𝑛 𝐶𝑟−1 = 𝑛+1
𝐶𝑟
𝑛𝐶 𝑛−𝑟+1
𝑟
(v) 𝑛𝐶
=
𝑟−1 𝑟

6. Binomial Theorem For Negative Integer Or Fractional Indices

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)……(𝑛−𝑟+1)
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ . + 𝑥𝑟 +
2! 3! 𝑟!

⋯ . , |𝑥| < 1 .
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)……..(𝑛−𝑟+1)
𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑥′
𝑟!

PERMUTATION & COMBINNATION

1. Arrangement : number of permutations of 𝑛 different things taken 𝑟 at a time =

𝑛
𝑛!
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

2. Circular Permutation :
The number of circular permutations of 𝑛 different things taken all at a time is; (𝑛 − 1) !
𝑛
3. Selection : Number of combinations of 𝑛 different things taken 𝑟 at a time = 𝐶𝑟 =
𝑛! 𝑛𝑃
𝑟
=
𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! 𝑟!

4. The number of permutations of ' 𝑛 ' things, taken all at a time, when ' 𝑝 ' of them are similar
& of one type, 𝑞 of them are similar & of another type, ' 𝑟 ' of them are similar & of a third
𝑛!
type & the remaining 𝑛 − (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟) are all different is .
𝑝!𝑞!𝑟!

5. Selection of one or more objects

(a) Number of ways in which atleast one object be selected out of ' 𝑛 ' distinct objects is

𝑛
𝐶1 + 𝑛 𝐶2 + 𝑛 𝐶3 + ⋯ … … … . . + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1
 (a) Number of ways in which at least one object may be selected out of ' 𝑝 ' alike objects of
one type ' 𝑞 ' alike objects of second type and ' 𝑟 ' alike of third type is

(𝑝 + 1)(𝑞 + 1)(𝑟 + 1) − 1

(b) Number of ways in which at least one object may be selected from ' 𝑛 ' objects where ' 𝑝 '
alike of one type ' 𝑞 ' alike of second type and ' 𝑟 ' alike of third type and rest

𝑛 − (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟) are different, is

(𝑝 + 1)(𝑞 + 1)(𝑟 + 1)2𝑛−(𝑝+𝑞+𝑟) − 1

6. Multinomial Theorem :
Coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 in expansion of (1 − 𝑥)−𝑛 = 𝑛+𝑟−1
𝐶𝑟 (𝑛 ∈ 𝑁)
7. Let 𝑁 = 𝑝𝑎 𝑞 𝑏 𝑟 𝑐 ….. where 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟. …. are distinct primes &𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 …. are natural numbers then
:
(a) The total numbers of divisors of 𝑁 including 1&𝑁 is = (𝑎 + 1)(𝑏 + 1)(𝑐 + 1) … ….
(b) The sum of these divisors is = (𝑝0 + 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ . +𝑝2 )(𝑞0 + 𝑞1 + 𝑞 2 +
⋯ . +𝑞 𝑏 )(𝑟 0 + 𝑟 1 + 𝑟 2 + ⋯ . +𝑟 𝑐 ) … …
(c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two factors is

(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors which
are relatively prime (or coprime) to each other is equal to 2𝑛−1 where 𝑛 is the number of
different prime factors in N.

8. Dearrangement :
Number of ways in which ' 𝑛 ' letters can be put in ' 𝑛 ' corresponding envelopes such that no
1 1 1 1 1
letter goes to correct envelope is 𝑛! (1 − + − + … … … + (−1)𝑛 )
1! 2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
 PROBABILITY

1. Classical (A priori) Definition of Probability :

If an experiment results in a total of (𝑚 + 𝑛) outcomes which are equally likely and
mutually exclusive with one another and if ' 𝑚 ' outcomes are favorable to an event ' 𝐴 '
while ' 𝑛 ' are unfavorable, then the probability of occurrence of the event ' 𝐴 ' = 𝑃(𝐴) =
𝑚 𝑛(𝐴)
= .
𝑚+𝑛 𝑛(𝑆)

We say that odds in favour of ' 𝐴 ' are 𝑚: 𝑛, while odds against ' 𝐴 ' are 𝑛: 𝑚.
𝑛
𝑃(𝐴‾) = = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴)
𝑚+𝑛
2. Addition theorem of probability: 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Distributive Laws :(a) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) (b) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
(i) 𝑃(𝐴 or 𝐵 or 𝐶) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐶) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) − 𝑃(𝐶 ∩ 𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩
𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
(ii) 𝑃 (at least two of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 occur) = 𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) + 𝑃(𝐶 ∩ 𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 2𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
(iii) 𝑃( exactly two of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 occur ) = 𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) + 𝑃(𝐶 ∩ 𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 3𝑃(𝐴 ∩
𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
(iv) 𝑃( exactly one of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 occur ) =
𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐶) − 2𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) − 2𝑃(𝐶 ∩ 𝐴) − 2𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 3𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
3. Conditional Probability : 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) = .
𝑃(𝐵)

4. Binomial Probability Theorem

If an experiment is such that the probability of success or failure does not change with trials,
then the probability of getting exactly 𝑟 success in 𝑛 trials of an experiment is 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑝𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟 ,
where ' 𝑝 ' is the probability of a success and 𝑞 is the probability of a failure. Note that 𝑝 +
𝑞 = 1.
5. Expectation :
If a value 𝑀1 is associated with a probability of 𝑝1 , then the expectation is given by ∑𝑝1 𝑀1 .
6. Total Probability Theorem : 𝑃(𝐴) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐵𝑖 ) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵𝑖 )
7. Bayes' Theorem :
If an event 𝐴 can occur with one of the 𝑛 mutually exclusive and exhaustive events
𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , … . , 𝐵𝑛 and the probabilities 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵1 ), 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵2 ) … . 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵𝑛 ) are known, then
𝑃(𝐵𝑖 )⋅𝑃(𝐴/𝐵𝑖 )
𝑃(𝐵1 /𝐴) = 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐵𝑖 )⋅𝑃(𝐴/𝐵𝑖 )

𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , 𝐵3 … . , 𝐵𝑛
𝐴 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵1 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵2 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵3 ) ∪ … … . .∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑛 )
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵1 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵2 ) + ⋯ … . +𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑛 ) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑖 )
8. Binomial Probability Distribution :
Σ𝑝𝑖 𝑥𝑖
(i) Mean of any probability distribution of a random variable is given by : 𝜇 = = Σ𝑝𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Σ𝑝𝑖

(ii) Variance of a random variable is given by, 𝜎 2 = Σ(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 ⋅ 𝑝𝑖 = Σ𝑝𝑖 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝜇2

COMPLEX NUMBER
1. The complex number system
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, then 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 is called congugate of 𝑧 and is denoted by 𝑧‾.
2. Demoivre's Theorem :
Case I : If 𝑛 is any integer then
(i) (cos 𝜃 + isin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + isin 𝑛𝜃
(ii) (cos 𝜃1 + isin 𝜃1 )(cos 𝜃2 + isin 𝜃2 )(cos 𝜃3 + isin 𝜃2 )(cos 𝜃3 + isin 𝜃3 ) … . . (cos 𝜃𝑛 +
isin 𝜃𝑛 ) = cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 + ⋯ … … 𝜃𝑛 ) + isin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 + ⋯ … . . +𝜃𝑛 )
𝑝
2𝑘𝜋+𝑝𝜃 2𝑘𝜋+𝑝𝜃
Case II : If 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑍 and 𝑞 ≠ 0 then (cos 𝜃 + isin 𝜃) = cos (
𝑞 ) + isin ( )
𝑞 𝑞

where 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3, … … , 𝑞 − 1
3. Cube Root Of Unity :
−1+𝑖 √3 −1−𝑖 √3
(i) The cube roots of unity are 1, , .
2 2
 (ii) If 𝜔 is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity then 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 = 0. In general 1 +
𝜔𝑟 + 𝜔2𝑟 = 0; where 𝑟 ∈ 𝐼 but is not the multiple of 3 .
4. Logarithm Of A Complex Quantity :
1 𝛽
(i) log 𝑒 (𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) = log 𝑒 (𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 ) + 𝑖 (2𝑛𝜋 + tan−1 ) where 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼.
2 𝛼

5. Geometrical Properties:
Distance formula : |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |.
𝑚𝑧2 +𝑛𝑧1 𝑚𝑧2 −𝑛𝑧1
Section formula : 𝑧 = (internal division), 𝑧 = (external division)
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚−𝑛

(1) amp (𝑧) = 𝜃 is a ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle 𝜃 to the 𝑥-axis.
(2) |𝑧 − 𝑎| = |𝑧 − 𝑏| is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining a to 𝑏.
(3) The equation of a line joining 𝑧1 &𝑧2 is given by, 𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝑡(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) where 𝑡 is a real
parameter.
(4) The equation of circle having centre 𝑧0 & radius 𝜌 is : |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝜌 or 𝑧𝑧‾ − 𝑧0 𝑧‾ − 𝑧‾0 𝑧 +
𝑧‾0 𝑧0 − 𝜌2 = 0 which is of the form zz̅ + 𝛼‾z + 𝛼z̅ + k = 0, k is real. Centre is – 𝛼&
radius = √𝛼𝛼‾ − k Circle will be real if 𝛼𝛼‾ − k ≥ 0..
(5) If |𝑧1 − 𝑧1 | + |𝑧 − 𝑧2 | = 𝐾 > |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | then locus of 𝑧 is an ellipse whose focii are
𝑧1 &𝑧2
𝑧−𝑧1
(6) If | | = 𝑘 ≠ 1,0, then locus of 𝑧 is circle.
𝑧−𝑧2

(7) If ||𝑧 − 𝑧1 | − |𝑧 − 𝑧2 || = 𝑘 < |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | then locus of 𝑧 is a hyperbola, whose focii are
𝑧1 &𝑧2

3-DIMENSION
1. Vector representation of a point : Position vector of point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is 𝑥𝑖ˆ + 𝑦𝑗ˆ + 𝑧𝑘ˆ.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2. Distance formula : √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )2 , 𝐴𝐵 = |𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴|

3. Distance of 𝑷 from coordinate axes : 𝑃𝐴 = √𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , 𝑃𝐵 = √𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑃𝐶 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 +𝑛𝑧1
4. Section Formula: 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
Mid point : 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
2 2 2

5. Direction Cosines And Direction Ratios

 i. Direction cosines: Let 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 be the angles which a directed line makes with the positive
directions of the axes of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 respectively, then cos 𝛼, cos 𝛽, cos 𝛾 are called the
direction cosines of the line. The direction cosines are usually denoted by (ℓ, m, n). Thus
ℓ = cos 𝛼, m = cos 𝛽, 𝑛 = cos 𝛾.
ii. If ℓ, m, n be the direction cosines of a line, then ℓ2 + m2 + n2 = 1
iii. Direction ratios: Let a, b, c be proportional to the direction cosines ℓ, m, n then a, b, c are
called the direction ratios.
iv. If ℓ, m, n be the direction cosines and a, b, c be the direction ratios of a vector, then

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
ℓ=± ,𝑚 = ± ,𝑛 = ±
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

v. If the coordinates 𝑃 and 𝑄 are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) then the direction ratios of line
𝑃𝑄 are, a = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑏 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 &𝑐 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 and the direction cosines of line 𝑃𝑄 are
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1
ℓ= |𝑃𝑄|
, 𝑚= |𝑃𝑄|
and 𝑛 = |𝑃𝑄|

6. Angle Between Two Line Segments:

𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
cos 𝜃 = | |.
√𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
The line will be perpendicular if 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 0, parallel if = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

7. Projection of a line segment on a line

If 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) then the projection of 𝑃𝑄 on a line having direction cosines
ℓ, 𝑚, 𝑛 is |ℓ(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑚(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑛(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )|
8. Equation Of A Plane : General form: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are not all zero,
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅.
(i) Normal form : ℓ𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝
(ii) Plane through the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ): 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) = 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
(iii) Intercept Form: + + = 1 (iv) Vector form: (𝑟 − 𝑎) ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 0 or 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑛⃗
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
 (iv) Any plane parallel to the given plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 +
𝜆 = 0.
|𝑑1 −𝑑2 |
Distance between 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑1 = 0 and 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑2 = 0 is =
√𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2

(v) Equation of a plane passing through a given point & parallel to the given vectors:
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ + 𝜇𝑐 (parametric form) where 𝜆&𝜇 are scalars.
or r ⋅ (𝑏⃗ × c) = 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 ) (non parametric form)
9. A Plane & A Point
(i) Distance of the point (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) from the plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given by
𝑎𝑥 ′ +𝑏𝑦 ′ +𝑐𝑧 ′ +𝑑
.
√𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
|𝑎⃗ ⋅𝑛
⃗ −𝑑|
(ii) Length of the perpendicular from a point ( 𝑎) to plane 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 is given by 𝑝 = ⃗|
.
|𝑛

(iii) Foot (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) of perpendicular drawn from the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to the plane
𝑥 ′ −𝑥1 𝑦 ′ −𝑦1 𝑧 ′ −𝑧1 (𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given by = = =−
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2

(iv) To find image of a point w.r.t. a plane:

Let 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) is a given point and 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given plane Let
𝑥 ′ −𝑥1 𝑦 ′ −𝑦1 𝑧 ′ −𝑧1 (𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)
(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) is the image point. then = = = −2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2

10.Angle Between Two Planes:

𝑎𝑎′ + 𝑏𝑏 ′ + 𝑐𝑐 ′
cos 𝜃 = | |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 √𝑎′2 + 𝑏 ′2 + 𝑐 ′2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Planes are perpendicular if 𝑎𝑎′ + 𝑏𝑏 ′ + 𝑐𝑐 ′ = 0 and planes are parallel if = =
𝑎′ 𝑏′ 𝑐′
⃗ ⋅𝑛
𝑛 ⃗
The angle 𝜃 between the planes 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛⃗1 = 𝑑1 and 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛⃗2 = 𝑑2 is given by, cos 𝜃 = |𝑛⃗ 1|⋅|𝑛⃗2 |
1 2

Planes are perpendicular if 𝑛⃗1 ⋅ 𝑛⃗2 = 0 & planes are parallel if 𝑛⃗1 = 𝜆𝑛⃗2 , 𝜆 is a scalar
11.Angle Bisectors
(i) The equations of the planes bisecting the angle between two given planes 𝑎1 𝑥 +
𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 + 𝑑1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 + 𝑑2 = 0 are
 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 + 𝑑1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 + 𝑑2
=±
√𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22

(ii) Bisector of acute/obtuse angle: First make both the constant terms positive. I nen
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 > 0 ⇒ origin lies on obtuse angle
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 < 0 ⇒ origin lies in acute angle
12.Family of Planes
(i) Any plane through the intersection of 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 + 𝑑1 = 0&𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 +
𝑑2 = 0 is 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 + 𝑑1 + 𝜆(𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 + 𝑑2 ) = 0
(ii) The equation of plane passing through the intersection of the planes 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛⃗1 = 𝑑1 & 𝑟 ⋅
𝑛⃗2 = 𝑑2 is 𝑟 ⋅ (𝑛1 + 𝜆𝑛⃗2 ) = 𝑑1 + 𝜆𝑑2 where 𝜆 is arbitrary scalar
13.Area of triangle : From two vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Then area is given by 1 |𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2

14.Volume Of A Tetrahedron: Volume of a tetrahedron with vertices

𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ,
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1 1
1 𝑥 𝑦2 𝑧2 1
𝑧3 ) and 𝐷(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 , 𝑧4 ) is given by 𝑉 = | 2 |
6 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3 1
𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑧4 1

A LINE
1. Equation Of A Line
(i) A straight line is intersection of two planes.
it is represented by two planes 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 + 𝑑1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + +𝑐2 𝑧 +
𝑑2 = 0.
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
(ii) Symmetric form: = = = 𝑟.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

(iii) Vector equation: r = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗

(v) Reduction of Cartesian form of equation of a line to vector form & vice versa
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= = ⇔ 𝑟 = (𝑥1 𝑖ˆ + 𝑦1 𝑗ˆ + 𝑧1 𝑘ˆ) + 𝜆(𝑎𝑖ˆ + 𝑏𝑗ˆ + 𝑐𝑘ˆ).
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
2. Angle Between A Plane And A Line:
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
(i) If 𝜃 is the angle between line = = and the plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0,
ℓ 𝑚 𝑛
𝑎ℓ+𝑏𝑚+𝑐𝑛
then sin𝜃 = | |
√(𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2 )√ℓ2 +𝑚2 +𝑛2

⃗ ) and r ⋅ n
(ii) Vector form: If 𝜃 is the angle between a line r = (a⃗ + 𝜆b ⃗ = 𝑑 then sin 𝜃 =
⃗b⋅n
⃗
[⃗ ⃗|
].
|𝑏||n

ℓ 𝑚 𝑛
(iii) Condition for perpendicularity = = , 𝑏⃗ × 𝑛⃗ = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

(iv) Condition for parallel aℓ + bm + cn = 0 ⃗b ⋅ n

⃗ =0
3. Condition For A Line To Lie In A Plane
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
(i) Cartesian form: Line = = would lie in a plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0, if
ℓ 𝑚 𝑛

𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 = 0&𝑎ℓ + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐𝑛 = 0.

(ii) Vector form: Line 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ would lie in the plane 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 if 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 0&𝑎 ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑
4. Skew Lines:
(i) The straight lines which are not parallel and non-coplanar i.e. non-intersecting are
𝛼′ − 𝛼 𝛽′ − 𝛽 𝛾′ − 𝛾
called skew lines. If Δ = | ℓ m n | ≠ 0, then lines are skew.
ℓ′ m′ n′
(ii) Vector Form: For lines 𝑟 = 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗1 and 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑏⃗2 to be skew (𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 ) ⋅
(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ) ≠ 0
⃗
(𝑎⃗2 −𝑎⃗1 )×𝑏
(iii) Shortest distance between lines r = 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗&𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗ is 𝑑=| ⃗|
|.
|𝑏

5. Sphere

General equation of a sphere is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑦 + 2𝑤𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0. (−𝑢, −𝑣, −𝑤) is

the centre and √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 − 𝑑 is the radius of the sphere.

SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
1. Sine Rule: = = .
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
2. Cosine Formula:

𝑏2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2
(i) cos 𝐴 =
2𝑏𝑐
𝑐 2 +𝑎2 −𝑏2
(ii) cos 𝐵 =
2𝑐𝑎
𝑎2 +𝑏2 −𝑐 2
(iii) cos C =
2𝑎𝑏

3. Projection Formula:

(i) 𝑎 = 𝑏cos 𝐶 + 𝑐cos 𝐵 (ii) 𝑏 = 𝑐cos 𝐴 + 𝑎cos 𝐶 (iii) 𝑐 = 𝑎cos 𝐵 + 𝑏cos 𝐴

4. Napier's Analogy - tangent rule

𝐵−𝐶 𝑏−𝑐 𝐴 𝐶−𝐴 𝑐−𝑎 𝐵 𝐴−𝐵 𝑎−𝑏 𝐶

(i) tan = cot (ii) tan = cot (iii) tan = cot
2 𝑏+𝑐 2 2 𝑐+𝑎 2 2 𝑎+𝑏 2

5. Trigonometric Functions of Half Angles:

Λ (𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) 𝐵 (𝑠−𝑐)(𝑠−𝑎) 𝐶 (𝑠−𝑎)(𝑠−𝑏)
(i) sin = √ ; sin = √ ; sin = √
2 𝑏𝑐 2 𝑐𝑎 2 𝑎𝑏

𝐴 s(s−a) B s(s−b) C s(s−c)

(ii) Cos = √ ; cos = √ ; cos = √
2 bc 2 ca 2 ab

Λ (𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) Δ 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
(iii) tan =√ = where 𝑠 = is semi perimetre of triangle.
2 𝑠(𝑠−𝑎) 𝑠(𝑠−𝑎) 2

2 2Δ
(iv) sin 𝐴 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) =
𝑏𝑐 𝑏𝑐
1 1 1
6. Area of Triangle (𝚫): Δ = 𝑎𝑏sin 𝐶 = 𝑏𝑐sin 𝐴 = ca sin 𝐵 =
2 2 2

√𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

7. m-n Rule:
If 𝐵𝐷: 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑚: 𝑛, then
(𝑚 + 𝑛)cot 𝜃 = 𝑚cot 𝛼 − 𝑛cot 𝛽

= ncot B − mcot C
8. Radius of Circumcirlce :

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑅= = = =
2sin 𝐴 2sin 𝐵 2sin 𝐶 4Δ
9. Radius of The Incircle:
Δ
i. 𝑟=
𝑠
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
ii. 𝑟 = (𝑠 − 𝑎) tan = (𝑠 − 𝑏) tan = (𝑠 − 𝑐) tan
2 2 2
B C
𝑎sin sin
2 2
iii. 𝑟= A & so on
cos
2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
iv. 𝑟 = 4𝑅sin sin sin
2 2 2

10.Radius of The Ex-Circles :

Δ Δ Δ 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(i) 𝑟1 = ; 𝑟2 = ; 𝑟3 = (ii) 𝑟1 = 𝑠tan ; 𝑟2 = 𝑠tan ; 𝑟3 = 𝑠tan
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑏 𝑠−𝑐 2 2 2

𝐵 𝐶
𝑎cos cos 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2 2
(iii) 𝑟1 = 𝐴 & so on (iv) 𝑟1 = 4𝑅sin ⋅ cos ⋅ cos
cos 2 2 2
2

11.Length of Angle Bisectors, Medians & Altitudes :

𝐴
2𝑏𝑐cos
2
(i) Length of an angle bisector from the angle 𝐴 = 𝛽𝑎 = ;
𝑏+𝑐

1
(ii) Length of median from the angle 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎 = √2𝑏 2 + 2𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
2
 2Δ
& (iii) Length of altitude from the angle 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑎 =
𝑎

12.The Distances of The Special Points from Vertices and Sides of Triangle:
𝐴
(i) Circumcentre (O):OA=R & 𝑂𝑎 = 𝑅cos 𝐴 (ii) Incentre (I): 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑟cosec &𝐼𝑎 = 𝑟
2

𝐴
(iii) Excentre (𝐼1 ): 𝐼1 𝐴 = 𝑟1 cosec (iv) Orthocentre: 𝐻𝐴 = 2𝑅cos 𝐴&𝐻𝑎 = 2𝑅cos 𝐵cos 𝐶
2

1 2Δ
(v) Centroid (G) : 𝐺𝐴 = √2𝑏2 + 2𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 &𝐺𝑎 =
3 3𝑎

13.Orthocenter and Pedal Triangle:

The triangle KLM which is formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the Pedal
Triangle.
i. Its angles are 𝜋 − 2𝐴, 𝜋 − 2𝐵 and 𝜋 − 2𝐶.
ii. Its sides are a cos 𝐴 = 𝑅sin 2𝐴,

𝑏cos 𝐵 = 𝑅sin 2𝐵 and

𝑐cos 𝐶 = 𝑅sin 2𝐶

iii. Circumradii of the triangles PBC, PCA, PAB and 𝐴𝐵𝐶 are equal.
14.Excentral Triangle:
The triangle formed by joining the three excentres 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 of △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is called the
excentral or excentric triangle.
 i. △ ABC is the pedal triangle of the ΔI1 I2 I3 .
𝜋 A 𝜋 B 𝜋 C
ii. Its angles are − , − & − .
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
iii. Its sides are 4Rcos , 4Rcos &4Rcos .
2 2 2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
iv. 𝐼1 = 4𝑅sin ; 𝐼2 = 4𝑅sin ; 𝐼3 = 4𝑅sin .
2 2 2

v. Incentre I of △ ABC is the orthocentre of the excentral △ I1 I2 I3 .

15.Distance Between Special Points :
i. Distance between circumcentre and orthocenter OH 2 = R2 (1 − 8cos 𝐴cos Bcos 𝐶)
ii. Distance between circumcentre and incentre
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑂𝐼 2 = 𝑅2 (1 − 8sin sin sin ) = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅𝑟
2 2 2
1
iii. Distance between circumcentre and centroid OG2 = R2 − (a2 + b2 + c 2 )
9

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. Principal Values & Domains of Inverse Trigonometric/Circular Functions:
Function Domain Range
𝜋 𝜋
i. 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 − ≤y≤
2 2

ii. 𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 0≤𝑦≤𝜋

𝜋 𝜋
iii. 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 where 𝑥∈𝑅 − <𝑦<
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
iv. 𝑦 = cosec −1 𝑥 where 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 ≥ 1 − ≤ 𝑦 ≤ ,𝑦 ≠ 0
2 2
𝜋
v. 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 where 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 ≥ 1 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋; 𝑦 ≠
2

vi. 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 where Domain 𝑥∈𝑅 0<𝑦<𝜋

𝑃−2

𝜋 𝜋
(i) sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥, − ≤ 𝑥 ≤ (ii) cos −1 (cos 𝑥) = 𝑥; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
2 2
 𝜋 𝜋
(iii) tan−1 (tan 𝑥) = 𝑥; − < 𝑥 < (iv) cot −1 (cot 𝑥) = 𝑥; 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
2 2

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(v) sec −1 (sec 𝑥) = 𝑥; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋, 𝑥 ≠ (vi) cosec −1 (cosec 𝑥) = 𝑥; 𝑥 ≠ 0, − ≤ 𝑥 ≤
2 2 2

𝑃−3

(i) sin−1 (−𝑥) = −sin−1 𝑥, − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 (ii) tan−1 (−𝑥) = −tan−1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

(iii) cos −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos −1 𝑥, −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 (iv) cot −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cot −1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

𝑃−4

𝜋
(i) sin−1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑥 = , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
2

𝜋
(ii) tan−1 𝑥 + cot −1 𝑥 = , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
2

𝜋
(iii) cosec −1 𝑥 + sec −1 𝑥 = , |𝑥| ≥ 1
2

2. Identities of Addition and Substraction:

I−1

i. sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 [𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 ], 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0&(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) ≤ 1

= 𝜋 − sin−1 [𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 ] , 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0&𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 > 1

ii. cos −1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑦 = cos −1 [𝑥𝑦 − √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 ] , 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0

𝑥+𝑦
iii. 0 tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 , 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0&𝑥𝑦 < 1
1−𝑥𝑦

𝑥+𝑦 𝜋
= 𝜋 + tan−1 , 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0&𝑥𝑦 > 1 = , 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0&𝑥𝑦 = 1
1 − 𝑥𝑦 2

I -2

i. sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 [𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 ] , 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0

 ii. cos −1 𝑥 − cos −1 𝑦 = cos −1 [𝑥𝑦 + √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 ] , 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦
𝑥−𝑦
iii. tan−1 𝑥 − tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 , 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0
1+𝑥𝑦

I−3

1
𝜋 − 2 sin−1 𝑥 if 𝑥>
√2
i. sin−1 (2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = [ 1
−(𝜋 + 2 sin−1 𝑥) if 𝑥<−
√2

ii. cos −1 (2𝑥 2 − 1) = [ 2 cos −1 𝑥 if 0≤𝑥≤1

2𝜋 − 2 cos −1 𝑥 if −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
2tan−1 𝑥 if |𝑥| < 1
−1 2𝑥
iii. tan = [ 𝜋 + 2tan−1 𝑥 if 𝑥 < −1
1−𝑥 2
−(𝜋 − 2tan−1 𝑥) if 𝑥>1
2 tan−1 𝑥 if |𝑥| ≤ 1
2𝑥
iv. sin−1 = [ 𝜋 − 2 tan−1 𝑥 if 𝑥>1
1+𝑥 2
−(𝜋 + 2 tan−1 𝑥) if 𝑥 < −1

v. cos −1
1−𝑥 2
= [ 2 tan−1 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0
1+𝑥 2 −2 tan−1 𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧−𝑥𝑦𝑧
If tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 + tan−1 𝑧 = tan−1 [ ] if, 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0, 𝑧 > 0&(𝑥𝑦 +
1−𝑥𝑦−𝑦𝑧−𝑧𝑥

𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥) < 1

NOTE:

i. If tan1 𝑥 + tan1 𝑦 + tan1 𝑧 = 𝜋 then 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧

𝜋
ii. If tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 + tan−1 𝑧 = then 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 = 1
2

iii. tan−1 1 + tan−1 2 + tan−1 3 = 𝜋

1 1 𝜋
iv. tan−1 1 + tan−1 + tan −1 =
2 3 2