forestry

Apsc
ASSAM PSC

STATE FOREST SERVICE

2 O25
Detailed Linkage of Infused with
Syllabus Based + Concepts with + Infographics &
study material PYQs Maps

Module - 1

◎ General Forestry ◎ Forest Regeneration

◎ Assam State Special ◎ Forest Nursery

◎ Silviculture ◎ Vegetative propagation

◎ Locality factors ◎ Plantation & Maintenance works

◎ Tree crop morphology ◎ Tending operations

◎ Forest Succession ◎ Commercial Forestry

◎ Forest types in India ◎ Mangroves & Cold desert

◎ Important Indian tree species
 MPPSC State Forest Service

Rank – 1 Rank – 3 Rank – 4 Rank – 5 Rank – 6

Mohit Kumar Sharma Garvit Jain Vinod Kumar Ora Dashrath Vishwakarma Ankit Kumrawat
Comprehensive Interview Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Interview Comprehensive Forestry
Guidance Programme Course + CIGP Course + CIGP Guidance Programme + Test Series Course + CIGP

Rank – 7 Rank – 8 Rank – 9 Rank – 10 Rank – 11

Prabhanshu Kamal Veerendra Prajapati Lakvendra Kumar Raghvendra Thakur Ratnaraj Singh Thakur
Mishra Comprehensive Forestry Prajapati Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Forestry
Course + Test Series + CIGP Course + Test Series Course
Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Forestry
Course + Test Series Course + Test Series + CIGP

Rank - 12
11 Out
of 12 Total
Selections in
Valsingh Kanesh Assistant Conservator of Forest (ACF) 2024
Comprehensive Forestry
Course + CIGP

Rank – 1 Rank – 3 Rank – 4 Rank – 5 Rank – 6

Shashank Jain Jyoti Thakur Shivam Gautam Nitin Patel Ravi Kumar
Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Interview Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Interview
Course + CIGP Course + CIGP Guidance Programme Course + CIGP Guidance Programme + Test Series

Rank – 7 Rank – 8 Rank – 9 Rank – 10 Rank – 11

Ankur Gupta Deependra Lodhi Kapil Chauhan Alok Kumar Jhariya Tarun Chouhan
Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Interview Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Forestry Comprehensive Interview
Course Guidance Programme Course Course + CIGP Guidance Programme + Test Series

Rank - 12
11 Out
of 12 Total
Selections in
Raghvendra Thakur Assistant Conservator of Forest (ACF) 2023
Comprehensive Forestry
Course + Test S. + CIGP
 Assam PSC
Forest Ranger (FRO) / Soil Conservation Ranger (SCR)
Examination 2025-26

FORESTRY
MODULE – 1

EDITION : 2026
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Gole ka mandir, Morar, Gwalior (MP) 474005

 Module - 1

CONTENTS
PART – I : Assam PSC Special
1. General Forestry 1 – 29
2. State Forest review 30 – 38
PART – II : SILVICULTURE
1. Forest, Forestry & Silviculture 39 – 49
2. Locality Factors 50 – 52
3. Climatic Factors 53 – 69
4. Edaphic Factors 70 – 80
5. Physiographic Factors 81 – 86
6. Biotic Factors 87 – 91
7. Influence of Forest on their environment 92 – 98
8. Tree’s Structure and Growth forms 99 – 104
9. Crop Morphology 105 – 112
10. Forest Succession 113 – 121
11. Forest Types in India 122 – 129
12. Natural Regeneration 130 – 139
13. Artificial Regeneration 140 – 144
14. Choice of Species 145 – 152
15. Seed Supply 153 – 165
16. Forest Nursery 166 – 177
17. Vegetative Propagation 178 – 186
18. Sowing and Planting 187 – 198
19. Maintenance of Plantation 199 – 200
20. Tending operations 201 – 212
21. Plantation Forestry 213 – 215
PART – III : Mangroves + Tree Species
22. Mangroves 216 – 222
23. Important Indian tree Species 223 – 236

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 Module
PREVIOUS YEAR
1
QUESTIONS

SYLLABUS .

◈ General Forestry – History and background of forest and Forestry in India and Assam;
Classification of forest, Trees Outside Forest (TOF), state wise forest distribution and
growing stock. Various National & State level bodies/Institutions.
◈ Silviculture – Definitions, terminology, objective of forestry, role of forest (productive,
protective and ameliorative), Locality factors, influence of forest on environment, Forest Degree level +
PYQ Based
Succession, forest types of India and Assam, Regeneration, Choice of species, Seed Supply,
(In short)
Nursery operations, Tending operations.
◈ Mangroves – Introduction
◈ Important Indian tree Species – Important commercial tree species of India and Assam.

PYQs Analysis .

No Of Questions
60 52
45 42
38 38
40 32 32 30

20

0
RFO 2021 SCR 2021 ASCO 2021 RFO 2018 RFO 2014 RFO 2013 ACF 2012 Average

ASSAM PSC RANGE FOREST OFFICER (RFO) 2021 (DoE 10/01/2023)

General Forestry . (b) 1953 4. The branch of Zoology, concerned

(c) 1960 with the study of amphibians and
1. The study of tree rings regarding the (d) 1968 reptiles, is known as
information about the growth and (a) Herpetology
3. The National Tiger Conservation
environment in the past is known as (b) Anthrozoology
(a) Dendrology Authority has been made a
(c) Catology
(b) Ecology statutory authority by amending the
(d) Entomology
(c) Dendrochronology Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 during
the year 5. World Wetland Day is celebrated
(d) Archaeology
(a) 2004 on
2. “Van Mahotsav” celebration in
(b) 2005 (a) 2nd February
India was started in the year (b) 2nd April
(c) 2006
(a) 1950 (c) 2nd July
(d) 2007
 FORESTRY
27. Plants that grow in or on the rock are 33. The Succession beginning in water (c) Increases nutrients in soil
known as is called (d) All of the above
(a) Hydrophytes (a) Xerarch 40. In India, social forestry was first
(b) Mesophytes (b) Hydrarch adopted successfully in
(c) Lithophytes (c) Aggregation (a) Gujarat
(d) parasites (d) Regression (b) Tamil Nadu
28. Calculate the number of plants/ha 34. Who developed the idea and theory (c) Kerala
when teak is planted at 2 m x 3 m of plant succession? (d) Rajasthan
spacing. (a) Thoreau 41. The direction towards which the
(a) 666 (b) Clements slope faces is known as
(b) 1666 (c) Cowles (a) Aspect
(c) 2000 (d) Dawson (b) Slope
(d) 2666 (c) Exposure
35. Trees which are characterized by
29. A tree sprout arising from the root is having flowers of both sexes on the (d) Albedo
called same tree are called Mangroves & Cold deserts .
(a) Slash (a) Coniferous
(b) Bole (b) Deciduous 42. Vivipary germination is found in
(c) Sucker (c) Dioecious which kind of trees?
(d) sapling (d) Monoecious (a) Evergreen trees
(b) Mangroves
30. The gradual replacement of one 36. Edaphic Factor is related to
plant community by another in the (c) Palms
(a) Temperature
development of vegetation towards (d) Gymnosperms
(b) Wind
climax is referred to as (c) Soil 43. Pneumatophores', specialized root
(a) Vegetation (d) Rainfall structure, are commonly found in
(b) Succession (a) Dry deciduous forests
37. The CVP (Climate, Vegetation and
(c) Aggregation (b) Mangrove forests
Productivity) index was developed by
(d) Regression (c) Open forests
(a) Egler
31. Which testing method is used as the (d) Shola forests
(b) Shelford
quick method for determination of (c) Clements Important Tree Species .
seed viability (d) Paterson
(a) Iodine test 44. Sal (Shorea robusta) belongs to the
38. Miyawaki method of raising tree family
(b) Lactophenol test
involves (a) Verbenaceae
(c) Tetrazolium test
(a) Planting superior exotic trees of (b) Simaroubaceae
(d) Potassium iodide test
different values (c) Dipterocarpaceae
32. The process of Cycling of (b) Planting fast-growing trees (d) Ebenaceae
Nutrients from soil to the plant and (c) Planting multipurpose tree
45. Which one of the following is an
back to the soil is called as species
(a) Nutrient cycle Exotic Tree Species in India?
(d) Close planting of native trees
(b) Nutrient enrichment (a) Eucalyptus
39. Soil organic matter (b) Sal
(c) Nitrogen pumping
(a) Increases water holding (c) Teak
(d) Biogas chemical cycling
capacity (d) Deodar
(b) Maintains soil temperature

ASSAM PSC Soil Conservation Ranger (SCR) 2021 (DoE 15/10/2022)

General Forestry . 46. The Indian Board of Wildlife is (a) The President of India
headed by (b) The Prime Minister of India

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 FORESTRY
(c) Advance thinning 73. The bacteria living in the module help (b) Michelia champaca
(d) Elite thinning in fixation of free nitrogen from the air (c) Mangifera indica
70. Which one of the following processes in the form of (d) All of the above
is involved in natural pruning? (a) Nitrite
76. Which of the following species is
(a) Removal of branches (b) Nitrates
called as flame of forest?
(b) Manipulation of branches (c) Nitric
(d) Nitrogen (a) Butea monosperma
(c) Killing of branches
(b) Prosopis juliflora (
(d) Knot-free timber 74. Which of the following tree species
(c) Terminalia tomentosa
71. Which of the following is a light helps to increase soil fertility through
N2-fixation? (d) Salmalia malabarica
demander species?
(a) Syzygium cumini (a) Dalbergia grandiflora 77. Shorea robusta belongs to the
(b) Dipterocarpus macrocarpus (b) Dipterocarpus macrocarpus family
(c) Quercus glauca (c) Hevea brasiliensis (a) Lauraceae
(d) Mallotus philippinensis (d) Alnus nepalensis
(b) Dipterocarpaceae
72. Seedless fruits are the result of Important Tree Species . (c) Verbanaceae
(a) Parthenogenesis (d) Phyllanthaceae
75. Which of the following is an
(b) Cross-pollination
evergreen tree species?
(c) Self-pollination
(a) Abies pindrow
(d) Parthenocarpy

ASSAM PSC Assi. Soil Conservation Officer (ASCO) 2021 (DoE 6/08/2022)

General Forestry . 82. Joint forest management was first 86. Biosphere reserve programme was
implemented at launched in 1971 by
78. Institute of wood Science and
(a) Jabalpur (a) FAO
Technology is located at
(b) Ayyalur (b) UNESCO
(a) Dehradun
(c) Arabari (c) WWF
(b) Jhansi
(d) Jhansi (d) UNDP
(c) Bhopal
(d) Bangalore 83. In which of the following days 87. The largest and oldest botanical
‘World Forestry Day’ is garden of India is in
79. Man and Biosphere Programme was
celebrated? (a) Kolkata
started in the year
(a) 21st March (b) Bangalore
(a) 1986
(b) 22nd March (c) Chennai
(b) 1990
(c) 16th September (d) Dehradun
(c) 1975
(d) 5th June 88. Who started the Van Mahotsav, a
(d) 1971
84. IIFM, Bhopal was established in festival of tree planting in 1950 /
80. The Project Tiger was launched in
(a) 1972 (a) K. M. Munshi
the year
(b) 1992 (b) Jack Westoby
(a) 1972
(c) 1982 (c) Sunderlal Bahuguna
(b) 1995
(d) 2002 (d) D. N. Tiwari
(c) 1973
85. Project Elephant was launched in 89. Social Forestry Programme was
(d) 1980
the year launched in
81. India’s first forest policy was (a) Fifth five-year plan
(a) 1972
enunciated during (b) Sixth five- year plan
(b) 1982
(a) 1894 (c) Seventh five-year plan
(c) 1992
(b) 1927 (d) Eight five-year plans
(d) 2002
(c) 1952
(d) 1988

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 FORESTRY
(b) Mesua ferrea (d) 2500 (a) Euphorbiaceae
(c) Pinus roxburghii (b) Solanaceae
Important Tree Species .
(d) Pinus wallichiana (c) Malvaceae
113. Which of the following tree species is (d) Verbenaceae
112. How many numbers of plants are
planted in coastal sand dune areas in
required for 10 hectares of plantation 115. The scientific name of ‘Blackboard’
India for checking soil erosion?
if the distance of plant in rows is 2 m tree is
(a) Casuarina equisetifolia
and the distance between the rows is (a) Pinus Kesiya
(b) Acacia lebbeck
4 m? (b) Spondias pinnata
(c) Prosopis juliflora
(a) 10000 (c) Alstonia scholaris
(d) Erythrina indica
(b) 25000 (d) Litsea cubeba
(c) 12500 114. Cyathium inflorescence is present in
family

ASSAM PSC RANGE FOREST OFFICER (RFO) 2018 (DoE 24/02/2019)

General Forestry . (b) Convention of International 125. The International Day of Forests is
Trade in Endangered Species of observed every year on
116. The National Tiger Conservation
wild fauna and flora (a) 1st January
Authority was made a Statutory
(c) Convention of Internationally (b) 21st March
Authority during the year Threatened Economic Species (c) 5th June
(a) 2004 (d) Conservation, Interpretation, (d) 22nd May
(b) 2005 Trade of Economically 126. The worldwide movement Earth Hour'
(c) 2006 Sustainable Species is organized by
(d) 2007
121. Arrangement of leaves on branches of (a) IUCN
117. The branch of Zoology concerned with plants is known as (b) WWF
the study of amphibians and reptiles (a) Phyllotaxy (c) WTI
is known as (b) Vernation (d) UNESCO
(a) Herpetology (c) Venation 127. What is the main activity during Earth
(b) Anthrozoology (d) Phytotaxy Hour Celebrations?
(c) Cetology
122. National Board of Wildlife is (a) Plantation
(d) Entomology
headed by the (b) Cleaning of surrounding areas
118. The World Wetland Day is (c) Turning off of electrical lights
(a) Prime Minister of India
celebrated on (b) Union Minister of EF & CC from 8:30 p.m. To 9:30 p.m.
(a) 2nd February (c) Secretary to Government of (d) None of the above
(b) 2nd April India, moef&CC 128. The Academy for Training of IFS
(c) 2nd July (d) None of the above Officers is named after
(d) 2nd October
123. Which of the following plants is (a) Jawaharlal Nehru
119. The Kyoto Protocol' is an known as living fossil? (b) Indira Gandhi
international treaty adopted in 1997 (a) Kayea assamica (c) Rajiv Gandhi
to reduce (b) Ginkgo biloba (d) Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(a) Deforestation (c) Magnolia griffithii 129. The Headquarters of Forest Survey of
(b) Desertification (d) Nepenthes khasiana India is in
(c) Greenhouse gas emission
124. What is the proportion of recorded (a) Delhi
(d) Industrialization
forests to geographical area of India? (b) Kolkata
120. CITES stands for (a) 33% (c) Mumbai
(a) Conservation of Internationally (b) 23-57% (d) Dehradun
Threatened Species (c) 30-33%
(d) None of the above

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 FORESTRY
(b) Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu, (c) <900 mm (d) Middle-aged trees
Psidium guajava (d) All of the above 238. All trees which form uppermost leaf
(c) Lagerstroemia speciosa, Cassia 234. The main source of supply of moisture canopy are
fistula, Mimusops elengi. to forest trees is (a) Dominated trees
(d) Dalbergia sissoo, Melia (a) Hygroscopic water (b) Dominant trees
Azadirachta, Pongamia pinnata (b) Capillary water (c) Suppressed trees
231. Identify the incorrect statement........ (c) Gravitational water (d) Dead and diseased Trees
The National Commission on (d) None of the above
Important Tree Species .
Agriculture, 1976 defined social 235. Afforestation means
forestry to include 239. Identify the mismatch.
(a) Raising of forest artificially which
(a) Joint forest management (a) Shorea robusta –
had vegetation before
(b) Farm forestry Dipterocarpaceae
(b) Raising of forest artificially where
(c) Recreation forestry (b) Mangifera indica – Rubiaceae
vegetation has long been absent
(d) Reforestation in degraded, (c) Citrus reticulato – Rutaceae
(c) Filling up vacancies in natural
forests (d) Tectona grandis – Verbenaceae
forest by planting
232. Plantation is raised in a rectangular (d) None of the above 240. Sal (Shorea robusta) grows best in
plot of barren land having soil with pH value
236. The selection of seed production
measurements 1500 m and 50 m. The (a) 3 to 4
areas is made on the basis of
area covered under the plantation is (b) 4-5 to 5-5
(a) Phenotypic character of tree
(a) 7-5 Ha (c) 6-5 to 7-5
(b) Genotypic character of tree
(b) 75 Ha (d) 7-6 to 8
(c) Age of trees
(c) 750 Hà (d) Locality of seed producing tree 241. The species of tree which is not
(d) None of the above found in Assam is
237. The best quality of seeds can be
233. The total annual rainfall in wet (a) Santalum album
obtained from
evergreen forest is (b) Taxus baccata
(a) Clonal seed orchard
(a) 2500 mm or more (c) Ailanthus grandis
(b) Seedling seed orchard
(b) Between 900 mm and 2500 mm (d) Garcinia cowa
(c) Seed production areas

ASSAM PSC (ACF) 2012

General Forestry . (d) 8 (c) 5

(d) 6
242. State of Forest Report contains General Forestry .
(a) State and extent of forest types 248. Presently how many wildlife
245. How many broad forest types are
(b) Area under forest sanctuaries are there in Assam?
found in Assam?
(c) Different types of forest (a) 11
(a) 21
(d) Forest cover (b) 14
(b) 32
(c) 17
243. Forestry was listed in the Concurrent (c) 42
(d) 20
List in (d) 52
(a) 1952 249. Manas is a/an
246. State flower of Assam is
(b) 1972 (a) National Park
(a) Venda roxburghii
(c) 1976 (b) World heritage site
(b) Cymbidium aloifolium
(d) 1978 (c) Elephant reserve
(c) Rhynchostylis retusa
(d) None of the above
244. How many biodiversity hotspots are (d) Dendrobium nathaniel
there in India? 250. Assam Forest School was established
247. Presently how many national parks
(a) 2 in [Assam PSC ACF 2012 Forestry]
are there in Assam?
(b) 4 (a) 1945
(a) 3
(c) 6 (b) 1948
(b) 4

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 CHAPTER GENERAL
1
FORESTRY

Our religious texts—such as the Vedas, Aranyakas (Aranya

meaning "forest" in Sanskrit), Upanishads, and Smritis—contain
Chapter Outline
numerous references to the use and management of forests,
emphasizing sustainability as an underlying theme. According to
1.1 Historical background
Vedic traditions, a village was considered complete only when
1.2 Forestry & Wildlife after
certain categories of forest vegetation or sacred groves—namely
independence
Mahavan, Shrivan, and Tapovan—were preserved in and around
1.3 MoEFCC & Its Sub-
its territory.
ordinated bodies
1.4 Forestry Education
Panchanada system
van Naimishranya
1.5 Forest Survey of India
Vaman van
(Dwarf forest) 1.6 FAO & Its State of the
world forest report
Dasarnaka
van 1.7 Forest types in India
1.8 Forest & wildlife related
Karusha van
acts, policies & missions
Mahakantaka Van
Saurastra
(Mahakantaka)
1.9 Wildlife projects
van
Kalesa 1.10 National & International
van Kalingaka van
Aparantaka van
days & years
(Western coast) 1.11 International
Dandakaranya
van Organizations
1.12 Superlatives in Forestry
1.13 Remarks
In the Vishnu Purana—one of the 18 Mahapuranas—there is a
description of 13 types of forests found in different regions of
ancient India. Some of these include – ◈ Angireya Vana (Bengal and
Assam), ◈ Prachya Vana (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal), ◈
Naimisharanya (Central Uttar Pradesh), ◈ Panchanada Vana
(Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir), ◈ Aparantaka Vana (Wester coast),
◈ Dandakaranya Vana, ◈ Kalinga Vana, ◈ Saurashtra Vana, ◈
Kalesha Vana (south of the Narmada River), ◈ Vaman Vana (near
Gwalior), ◈ Dasarnaka Vana (around Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh), ◈
Mahakantaka Vana (Kalahandi, Koraput, and Bastar districts in
 APSC | 2026

Odisha and Chhattisgarh), and ◈ Karusha Vana (Baghelkhand and

Mahāvan (Great natural forest)
Bundelkhand regions).
A large, wild forest that serves as a
These forests were broadly classified into two main types—
protected habitat for flora and fauna.
(a) Kunjar Vana ***
– Elephant forests, characterized by dense This is comparable to modern-day

vegetation that provides shelter and sustenance for wild "protected forests," where ecosystems
are left largely undisturbed
elephants.
Śrīvan / Shrīvan (Forest of prosperity)
(b) Kantak Vana*** – Thorny scrub forests, consisting of arid or
semi-arid vegetation. A managed, production forest—akin to
timber—where villagers could
► MAURYA PERIOD : When Chandragupta Maurya came to sustainably harvest fuelwood, fodder,
power around 300 BC, he realized the importance of forests. He herbs, and timber without harming the
ecosystem
appointed a Kupyadhyaksha (head of the forest department)
Tapovan (Forest for penance)
to oversee the forests with the help of several van-pals (forest
guards). According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, during this A sacred grove dedicated to sages and
spiritual practice. Animals and plants
period, the king typically divided the forest into four Bhag
within such zones were strictly
(parts) : ◈ One part reserved for himself for hunting and protected, and no harm was permitted
personal use, ◈ The second part reserved for the state (i.e.,
Magadh), ◈ The third part for donation purposes (to Brahmins and others), and ◈ The fourth part for
public use.

► GUPTA PERIOD : A large part of the central peninsular region was donated by the Gupta rulers in the form
of brahmadeya, which was converted into agricultural land with the help of forest dwellers.

► DURING COLONIAL RULE

Eucalyptus was reportedly introduced to India in 1790 by Tippu sultan, the ruler of Mysore.
He is said to have planted around 16 species on the Nandi Hills (then known as Nandi-
Durga) near Bangalore, possibly using seeds obtained from his French allies. However, this
claim primarily relies on a presentation by retired Indian Forest Service officer Lt. Shyam
Sunder, delivered during a workshop on the "Eucalyptus Controversy in Karnataka" at the
Indian Statistical Institute, Bangalore, in 1984. Apart from this account, there is no
substantial or independently verified evidence linking Tippu Sultan directly with the
1790
introduction of Eucalyptus in India. Even major sources, including FAO and ICFRE, base their
references on Shyam Sunder’s workshop.

The first specimen of the Eucalyptus genus was collected in 1770 by Joseph Banks on the shores of
Botany Bay, Australia, during Captain James Cook’s first Pacific voyage. The genus was formally
described and named Eucalyptus obliqua by French botanist L'Héritier in 1788. The name
Eucalyptus derives from the Greek words eu (true) and kalyptos (to cover), referring to the cap-like
operculum that encloses the flower bud until it blooms.

Captain Watson*** was appointed as the first Conservator of Forests*** by the

1806
Government of Madras. His primary responsibility was to preserve and enhance the

2
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 Forestry

1.3 MoEFCC & ITS SUBORDINATE BODIES

About Ministry .

• Initially functioned as a department under the Ministry of Agriculture.

• Turning Point – Bhopal Gas Tragedy : On 2–3 December 1984, the Bhopal gas leak disaster occurred,
caused by the release of Methyl Isocyanate (MIC).
• In 1985 : Ministry of Environment and Forestry was created.
• Formation of Ministry : In 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forests was established as an
independent ministry to address environmental issues more comprehensively.
• (Note : The Climate Change portfolio was added later)
• 1st Minister : Not required for memorization.
• Current : Shree Bhupendra Yadav.
• Need for Regional Offices : Due to increasing regulatory responsibilities and operational complexities in
New Delhi, and to reduce administrative burdens and delays, regional offices were set up. These offices
ensure faster processing, localized environmental governance, and better coordination.
 Regional Office for North-Eastern States : Shillong, Meghalaya***

• Subordinate/Autonomous Institutions under MoEF&CC : ◈ ZSI – Zoological Survey of India, ◈ BSI –

Botanical Survey of India, ◈ FSI – Forest Survey of India, ◈ ICFRE – Indian Council of Forestry Research
and Education, ◈ IGNFA – Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, ◈ NGT – National Green Tribunal, ◈
National Zoological Park, New Delhi, ◈ National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi, etc.

Botanical Survey of India (BSI) .

• Headquarters : Kolkata***, West Bengal

• Established : In 1890***, under the leadership of George King***, who was then
the Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. at the time.
• Logo : Banyan tree*** (Ficus benghalensis) *** – also the National Tree of India***
• Number of Regional Centres : 12
• Key Functions & Mandate :
– Documentation and Study of Phyto-diversity
– Ethnobotanical Research : documenting traditional knowledge of plants used by indigenous
communities.
– Ex-situ Conservation : Of rare, endangered, & endemic plant species.
– Preparation and Maintenance of the National Database of Indian Plants, including:
o National Herbarium records
 Arunachal Pradesh regional centre, Itanagar
o Floristic surveys
: Established in 1977
o Digitization and taxonomy  Eastern Regional Centre, Shillong :
– Nodal Agency for : IUCN Red Data Book established in 1956.

Important Botanical Gardens under BSI  Sikkim Himalaya Regional Centre, Gangtok

• Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanical Garden , Howrah – Formerly known as the Royal
Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Famous for the Great Banyan Tree, over 250 years old. One of the largest and

13
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 Forestry

Time Frame for Satellite Data Acquisition Purpose of Seasonal Variation : To

– October to December : For most Indian states ensure cloud-free satellite imagery
– January to April : For the Northeastern region, coastal areas, and to capture fully developed foliage,
which improves the accuracy and clarity
and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands of forest cover mapping.
FOREST AREA .

All such lands which have been notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules or recorded as 'forest' in
the Government records. The recorded forest area may or may not have forest cover.

• Total = 77.5 m hectares*** (23.59 %*** of Geographical area)

• Reserves forest > Protected forest > Unclassed Forest.
• Lakshadweep : “0” Reserve forest area

Forest area : Area-wise

MP > MH > Orissa > CG >>>> Punjab > Haryana > Goa

Highest Lowest

Forest area : Percentage-wise

(6%) (2.6%)

A&N > Sikkim > Manipur > UK >>>> Punjab > Puduchherry >
(87%) (82%) (78%) (71%) Lakshadweep
(0%)

Assam

• Recorded forest area = 26,836 sq. km*** [2.6 million hectares] *** which is 34.21 %*** of state geographical
area.
• of which, Reserve forest (66%) > Unclassed forest (33 %) > Protected forest (0%).
• The state has the highest / largest area under forest = MP***

FOREST COVER .

All lands, more than one hectare with a tree canopy As per Kyoto protocol : the definition of a forest can
varies from one country to another, depending on the
density of more than or equal to 10% irrespective of
country’s capacities and capabilities. Basic criteria
ownership, legal status and land use. Such lands may
• Crown cover percentage : Minimum tree crown
not necessarily be a recorded forest area. It also cover falling within the range of 10% to 30%. India
includes orchards, bamboo and palm. adopted a 10% threshold
• Minimum Area of Stand : Forested areas should
• Total = 71.5 m hectares*** (21.76 %*** of GA) have a minimum area between 0.05 and 1 ha. India
• 2
Compare to last report = 156 km Increase. adopted 1 ha minimum
• Minimum Height of Trees : Trees in these areas
• Forest cover in Hill districts = 40% of GA
should have the potential to reach a minimum height
• Forest cover classification based on canopy of 2 to 5m at maturity in their natural habitat.
density –

17
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 Forestry

• World Water Day or World water UPPCS (Pre) G.S 2011; MPPSC ACF/RFO Environmental Science 2014;
Conservation Day : 22nd March BHU (M.Sc.) Agroforestry Entrance examination 2018; HPPSC RFO 2021

• World Metrology day : 23rd March [ICAR (SRF) 2019]

KPSC ACF (Pre) GS 2008; Assam (ACF) 2013 Environmental science, RFO
2014; Mizoram PSC Civil (Pre) GS 2014; BHU (M.Sc.) Agroforestry
• World Earth Day : 22nd April Entrance examination 2018; Rajasthan ACF/RFO 2018; APPSC-Section
officer 2020; ICAR (SRF) 2020; Tripura PSC Civil (Pre) GS 2020, 2021

• World Press Freedom day : 3rd May Tripura PSC Civil (Pre) GS 2020

Nagaland PSC Technical Exam (Forestry Optional) 2018; ASRB ARS/NET

• National Agroforestry days : 8th May 2021

Mizoram PSC Civil (Pre) GS 2017; ICAR (JRF) 2016; ICAR (SRF) 2019;
Kerala (RFO) 2019; Karnataka (RFO) 2019; MPPSC ACF/RFO
• World Biodiversity day : 22nd May Environmental Science 2019; MPPSC ACF/RFO 2019 GS; RPSC (ACF/RFO)
Examination 2018/2021 Environmental science

UPPCS Mains 2004, 2011, 2014, UPPCS (Pre) 2004, 2012, Uttarakhand
UDA/LDA (Pre) 2007, Uttarakhand PSC (Pre) 2006-07, MPPSC (Pre) GS
2009; KPSC ACF (Pre) GS |2006; MPPSC ACF 2011; Odisha-civil (Pre)
2011; ICAR (JRF) 2012, 2016; Assam (ACF) 2013 Environmental science,
• World environment day : 5th June (RFO) 2014; MPPSC State Engineering Service (Prelim) 2014; MPPSC
(ACF/RFO) Environmental Science 2014; Kerala (RFO) 2015; Mizoram PSC
Civil (Pre) GS 2016, 2018; ASRB (ARS/NET) 2018; RPSC (ACF/RFO) 2018
Environmental science; Assam (ACF) 2019

• World Oceans Day : 8th June ICAR (JRF) 2016

• World day to combat desertification and drought : 17th June

• Van Mahotsav : 1st week of July [Almost in every 2nd/3rd paper]

• World population day : 11th July ICAR (JRF) 2016; RPSC ACF/RFO (2018) Environmental science

• World nature conservation day : 28th July

• International Tiger Day : 29th July ICAR (JRF) 2016; UPPCS (Mains) G.S 2014
Assam (ACF) 2013 Environmental science; UPPCS (Pre) G.S 2014, MPPCS
• World Ozone Day : 16th September (Pre) G.S 2014; UPPCS (Pre) G.S 2016; WBPSC Civil (Pre) GS 2017;
[Ozone week : 16 to 23rd September] Maharashtra PSC (Pre) G.S, 2018; Rajasthan ACF/RFO 2018; MPPSC
ACF/RFO Environmental Science 2019; ICAR (JRF) 2020

• World car-free day : 22nd September TNPSC Civil (Pre) GS 2015

• International coastal clean-up day : 3rd Saturday in September

• [National] Green consumer day : 28th September
MPPSC ACF/RFO Environmental Science 2014; ICAR (JRF) 2015; RPSC
• Wildlife week : 1st week of October [ Gandhi ACF/RFO (2018) Forestry, Environmental science; ICAR (SRF) 2020;
Jayanti] Nagaland PSC Technical Exam (Forestry Optional) 2021; Assam PSC RFO
2021

• World Animal Day : 4th October Karnataka PSC (RFO) 2007

• World habitat Day : In 1985 the United

Nations designated the first Monday of Karnataka PSC (RFO) 2007; Nagaland PSC Technical Exam (Forestry
October every year as World Habitat Day. Optional) 2021; Nagaland PSC CTSE 2023

World habitat day 2021 : 4th October

• World Food Day : 16th October ICAR (SRF) 2015

25
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 ASSAM
CHAPTER

2.1 BACKGROUND

• Formerly known as : “the land of mighty Brahmaputra” Chapter Outline

• Etymology: "A-ham" (Uneven) or from "Ahom” The Ahoms are
believed to have named the region 'Aham' or 'Asom'.
2.1 Background
• State reorganization : THE ASSAM REORGANISATION
2.2 Forest Department
(MEGHALAYA) ACT, 1969.
2.3 Forest Resources
• Assam Divas = 2nd December (to commemorate the arrival of
Chaolung Sukaphaa, the first Ahom king, who is credited with
unifying the various ethnic groups of Assam and establishing the
Ahom kingdom).

STATE SYMBOLS .

Assamese
Symbol English Name Scientific name Family
Term
Stare Tree Hollong*** Hullung Dipterocarpus macrocarpus Dipterocarpaceae
One-horned
State animal Gor Rhinoceros unicornis Rhinoceros
rhinoceros***
White-winged
State Bird Deo haah Asarcornis scutulata Anatidae
wood duck***
Foxtail
State Flower Kopou phul Rhynchostylis Orchidaceae
Orchids***

• State Moto : Joi Aai Axom (Hail mother Assam)

• State Song : O Mur Apunar Dekh (O my dearest country)
• State Language : Axomiya (Assamese)
• State Festival / Dance : Bihu

MONSOON .

The monsoon typically begins in the first week of June.

Approximately two-thirds (66%) of the state's total annual rainfall is
received during the South-West Monsoon. However, the distribution
of rainfall is uneven across the state—Kokrajhar and Karimganj
districts receive the highest rainfall (210 to 250 cm), while Karbi
Anglong records the lowest (80 to 90 cm).
• Rainy days : 62 to 68 (Daily ≥ 2.5 mm)
 Forestry
driven plantation initiative — including women’s groups, school children, teachers, tea garden
workers, NGOs, and other environmentally conscious citizens.

In its first year, the initiative successfully planted over 1.19 crore saplings, with a survival rate of over
90%, marking it as one of the most impactful green drives in the region.

2024–25 plans under ABA included a target of 3 crore saplings.

⩥ Bon Mitra Abhijan – Assam Budget 2025–26

Objective : Mitigate human-elephant conflict and promote

wildlife conservation through habitat enrichment,
technology integration, and community support.

Key Features

• Gaja Mitra Scheme : Rolled out in five high-conflict districts – Goalpara, Udalguri, Nagaon,
Baksa, and Sonitpur.
• Habitat Enrichment & Technology : AI-based camera traps for real-time elephant monitoring.
Promoting paddy procurement in elephant-foraging zones to reduce crop raids.
• Wildlife-Friendly Infrastructure : Installation of canopy bridges with safety nets over
roads/railways to facilitate safe wildlife crossings.
• Compensation Measures : Ex-gratia for human fatalities from wildlife conflict: increased from
₹4 lakh to ₹5 lakh. ◈ Crop-damage compensation : increased from ₹7,500 to ₹8,000 per bigha.
• Budget Allocation : ₹20 crore earmarked for the entire Bon Mitra Abhijan initiative.

⩥ The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary is a fragmented patch

of evergreen forest located in the Jorhat district. Originally set
aside as a Reserve Forest in 1881, it was officially declared a
wildlife sanctuary and renamed in 1997.

 It is India’s only sanctuary dedicated to the conservation of

the Western Hoolock Gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) — the
only ape species found in India***

 It is the only Indian sanctuary with seven primate species : 4

Macaque species (Stump-Tailed, Rhesus, northern Pig-
Tailed and Assamese), Slow Loris and Capped Langur
give company to the Gibbon.

⩥ Primates : Out of 15 Indian primate species 9 are found in Assam***.

• Gibbon : Hoolock gibbon = only ape found in India***

• Loris : Slow Lorries*** is the only prosimian found in Assam and the N.E. region. Locally known as
“Lajuki Bandar” they are solitary animals and obligate canopy dwellers. Because of the habitant
loss and fragmentation the primates are facing serious threat to their survival.

• Langurs : ◈ Golden langur (Sonali Bandar) : Confined between Sankosh river in the west; Manas
in the east; Brhmaputra in the south and mountains in Bhutan in the north. ◈ Capped monkey
— More or less distributed through the State.

© Hornbill classes 07223970423 [email protected] 33

 CHAPTER FOREST FORESTRY
1 & SILVICULTURE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter Outline
The term Forest has its roots in early medieval European society. The
increasing population and the rise of new kingdoms and serfdoms,
1.1 Forest
based on the heavy exploitation of natural resources, caused a severe
1.2 Forest Classification
loss of natural vegetation (that we called in India - Jungles) to meet
1.3 Forestry
their growing demands for food, fodder, fuel, and timber. The shrinking
1.4 Silviculture
areas of natural vegetation created a shortage of fuelwood and timber
1.5 Role of Forest
in their ruling regions. As a result, they began designating parts of the
1.6 Forestry development
land, usually unproductive and located at the boundaries of village
through ages
territories, for growing tree crops, which became known as Woodlands
1.7 Important terminology
or Forests, to produce the required resources.
Precision Silviculture
 Forest term derived from a Latin*** word Foris*** which means Sacred Groves
outside of village boundary . ***

Figure 1.1 : A medieval European village

► DEFINITION

– Forest is an area set aside for the production of timber and

other forest produce or to get other indirect benefits from it
[Technical definition].
 APSC | 2026

– Forest is an uncultivated land occupied by natural vegetation with a closed or partially closed
canopy, which provides shelter to the wildlife [Ecological definition].

– Forest is any land area that has been declared as a 'forest' under any central or state, or local laws
(i.e., by Tribal council) [Legal definition]

1.2 FOREST CLASSIFICATION

Forests are classified into various categories to –

• Provide a Standardized system for Identifying, Describing, and Mapping different types of forests
based on their characteristics, such as tree species composition, canopy structure, and ecological function.
This information can be used in decision-making processes related to Conservation, Management,
Administration, Research, Land-Use Planning and Record-Keeping.
• For purposes of Description, Administration, Management, and Record;

Forest may be classified on the basis of –

[A] Age
[B] Regeneration
[C] Composition
[D] Ownership
[E] Function
[F] Legality
[G] Growing stock
[H] Density of Forest cover
[I] Ecological or Ecosystem-based

► FOREST TYPES, BASED ON AGE

• Even-Aged or Regular Forest : A forest (or stand) composed of trees that are approximately the
same age & Size. From a management perspective, a difference of up to 25% of the rotation age is
permissible, especially for stands not harvested for 100 years or more. While nature does not
naturally create even-aged forests, humans can achieve this through plantation efforts, such as the
Nilambur teak plantation established in 1842. [In essence, a truly Even-Aged Forest is typically
Man-Made].

• Un-Even Aged or Irregular Forest : A forest stand comprising trees of various ages. The age difference
typically exceeds 20 years, or in the case of long-rotation crops, more than 25% of the rotation age.
Natural forests generally exhibit this composition, such as the Satpura forests.

► METHOD OF Regeneration

• High Forest : A forest characterized by a closed or partially closed canopy, regenerated through
Seeds. It is also known as a “Seedling Forest”.
• Coppice Forest : A forest regenerated through some Vegetative methods like coppicing, root suckers,
or ratoons. It is also known as a “Low Forest”

40
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 LOCALITY FACTORS
CHAPTER

2.1 LOCALITY FACTORS

Chapter Outline
SITE or LOCATION is an area where you want to carry out plantation or
management work.
2.1 Locality Factors
2.2 Why are these factors
important?
2.3 Site Quality
Quality classification

Site quality Index

SITE FACTORS

The sum of all effective climatic, edaphic, topographic, and biotic

conditions of a particular area under which a plant community
lives. This means, Site factors are all biotic and abiotic factors of an area
that interact and influence vegetation occurrence, distribution, and
growth.

⩥ Site factors are also known as Locality Factors or Habitat

Factors.

These factors are –

1. Climatic factors : Solar radiation, rainfall, Wind speed, air

temperature, etc.
2. Edaphic factors : Soil organic matter, soil texture, soil structure,
mycorrhiza, waterlogging, salinity, etc.
3. Topographic or Physiographic factors : Mountains arrangement,
Altitude, latitude, slope, aspects, exposure, etc.
4. Biotic factors : insects/pests attacks, invasion of exotics, grazing
and browsing by wild and domestic animals, Human interference.

2.2 WHY ARE THESE FACTORS IMPORTANT?

Locality factors are very important in silvicultural operations because

they directly affect the growth, health, and success of a forest or
 CLIMATIC FACTORS
CHAPTER

Climate is the average weather prevalent in any locality that

influences our forest vegetation, i.e., light, atmospheric Chapter Outline
temperature, pressure & humidity, wind, etc.
3.1 Solar radiation
Importance
Light Increment
Natural pruning
Species behaviour toward
Humidity + Moisture
2 light
Solar Radiation
1 3.2 Temperature
Importance
Frost : Types, Resistance &
Species behaviour
4 Snow : its beneficial &
Temperature harmful effects
3
Wind 3.3 Wind
Beneficial & harmful effects
s
Figure 3.1 : Climatic factors 3.4 Moisture
Types of precipitation
3.1 SOLAR RADIATION Source of Moisture
Importance of water
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for photosynthesis.
Water-logging / Flood
Factors such as Quality, Intensity, and Duration of light affect the
Drought
vegetation or indirectly the entire forest ecosystem. Water tapper, Saver and
Storer plants
IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR RADIATION

Plants depend upon solar radiation not only to synthesize food but also
to regulate many other metabolic reactions. Such as –

▪ Essential for basic metabolic activities like photosynthesis,

transpiration, and the opening and closing of photoactive stomata.
▪ Light is crucial for the synthesis of chlorophyll molecules. A
prolonged absence of light results in the degeneration of
chlorophyll, turning the leaves yellow—a phenomenon known as
Etiolation.
▪ Intense light increases the rate of transpiration, leading to
 EDAPHIC FACTORS
CHAPTER

Edaphic factors are the ecologically influenced characteristics of the

soil brought about by its physical and chemical characteristics. These Chapter Outline
include soil texture, structure, soil water, temperature, porosity,
salinity, pH, Electrical conductivity, etc. 4.1 Soil – Conceptual part
4.2 Mycorrhiza
Ecto
Endo
Ecto-Endo
Importance
4.3 Biofertilizers
Classification
4.4 Soil Nutrients
4.1 CONCEPTUAL PART Macro

▪ Soil : the uppermost weathered layer of the earth's crust. Micro

▪ Forest Soil : A portion of the earth's surface serves as a medium 4.5 Nutrients cycling
Internal NC
for the growth and sustenance of forest vegetation.
External NC
[Remaining parts such as soil formation, type, distribution, classification,
4.6 Influence of Parent
properties, and conservation practices are a part of Soil Science, and,
are required to be studied separately at a superficial level under rocks on the distribution
different Sub-head 'Forest Soil']. of species
4.2 MYCORRHIZA

Mycorrhiza is the Symbiotic* relationship between Fungi and

Higher Plants (Myco = Fungi + Rhiza = Rhizome = Roots).
Mycorrhizal fungi are composed of fine, tubular filaments called
Hyphae (singular Hypha). The mass of hyphae that forms the fungus
body is called Mycelium (plural Mycelia).

 Mycorrhiza term was given by – A. B. Frank*

 Symbiosis term was given by – Anton De Bary*
 The term Rhizosphere was first time coined by – Lorenz Hiltner*

TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAE

▶ ECTO-MYCORRHIZA : Under this, fungal mycelium forms a thick

Mantle Sheath around the lateral roots, and some mycelia
 CHAPTER
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
5
FACTORS

The factors concerned with topography or physical features of an

area are called topographic or Physiographic factors, including Chapter Outline
height, the direction of slope, and slopes' steepness. The
topographic factors are also called indirect factors as they 5.1 Configuration of land
influence the growth and development of forest vegetation by surface
bringing variations in climatic factors. 5.2 Altitude
Effect
These factors are -
Zonation
• Configuration or arrangement of the land surface, i.e., hills & 5.3 Latitude
valleys 5.4 Slopes
• Altitude 5.5 Aspect & Exposure
• Latitude
• Slopes
• Aspect & Exposure

5.1 CONFIGURATION OF LAND SURFACE

The arrangement of hills and valleys affects the local climate by

influencing rainfall patterns, temperature, solar radiation, and
soil profile depth. It also impacts wind direction, which is
essential for pollination and seed dispersal in conifers. Himalayan
valleys are cooler in winter, and Pool frost is common; whereas in
summer, the surrounding hills make the valleys extremely hot. The
soil in valleys is deeper, more fertile and productive, and supports
dense vegetation.

Figure 5.1 : Effect of mountain range

on the pattern of rainfall
 CHAPTER TREE’S STRUCTURE &
8 GROWTH FORMS

8.1 WHAT IS A TREE?

Trees are woody plants having one erect perennial stem or trunk at Chapter Outline
least three inches (7.5 cm) in diameter at breast height, a more or
less defined formed crown of foliage, and a height of at least 12 ft 8.1 What is a tree?
(4 m). 8.2 Basic terminology
CROWN 8.3 Tree’s growth phases
8.4 Tree’s growth stages
The crown encompasses all the above-ground parts of a tree,
8.5 Reproduction
including branches, leaves, and reproductive structures.
8.6 Exercise
FORMS OF TREE CROWN

A crown is an upper branchy part of a tree above the bole. It is the

result of branching behaviour in the bole. In some trees, i.e.,
Phoenix, Cocos, Borassas, etc., there is no branching behaviour in
the stem and the crown is formed by larger leaves which come out
from the top of the unbranched stems. In other trees crown may be
– ◈ Conical as in the case of Pines, and Deodar, ◈ Cylindrical as
in silver fir, Eucalyptus, Ashoka, etc. ◈ Spherical in mango, neem,
Imli, Mahua, etc., ◈ Broad & Flat topped in Acacia planifrons,
Albizzia spp., ◈ Broom shape as in Acacia nilotica (Babool), and ◈
Frondose crown as in Prosopis juliflora.

Phoenix, Coconut, Borassus Abies pindrow (Silver Fir),

Eucalyptus, Ashoka Mango, Neem, Imli, Mahua, etc.

Unbranched stem of Conical shape Cylindrical shape Spherical shape

Coconut
 FORESR SUCCESSION
CHAPTER

10

Succession is the process by which one set of biotic communities is

gradually replaced by another, more advanced and distinct Chapter Outline
nature biotic community.
10.1 Process of Succession
10.2 Types of Succession
10.3 Causes of Succession
10.4 Examples of various
types of Succession
Mt. Temperate Forest
Riverain forest
Estuarine succession
Sand dunes
10.5 Theories
Figure 10.1 : Mono-climax theory
Forest succession.
Poly-climax theory
Climax pattern
The 1st species that encroach upon and begin to grow (establish hypothesis
themselves) in a new area are called Colonizer* or Pioneer* species. Information theory

Sere or Seral Stages (sometimes referred to as the Consolidation Mosaic theory

Phases) are the intermediate stages during which plant communities

develop, improve soil conditions, and gradually transform into more
advanced and stable communities.

• Climax Stage – This is the final, mature, and stable community

 Succession term was given
that can sustain itself over a long period while remaining in by "Hault".
balance with the existing environmental conditions.
• Succession – The process of development and transition of
vegetation from one stage to another (e.g., from grassland to
woodland) is called succession.
• With each stage of succession, Complexity and Biodiversity
Increase.
• When a colonizer species begins to grow on barren land where
there is no trace of previous organic matter, it is called Primary
Succession.
 CHAPTER ARTIFICIAL
13
REGENERATION

The renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or other artificial

means is called artificial regeneration (synonyms = plantation). It
Chapter Outline
includes both (i) reforestation and (ii) afforestation. Reforestation is
13.1 Objectives of AR
the restocking of a felled or cleared forest by artificial means.
13.2 AR v/s NR
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest by artificial means on a
13.3 Factors affecting
non-forest area (the area from which forest vegetation has been
plantation activities
absent).
Russian poplar
13.1 OBJECTIVES OF ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION 13.4 Plantation organization
• Supplement natural regeneration : Natural regeneration is a 13.5 Plantation schedule
slow and challenging process, and often it does not give 13.6 Success of Plantation
adequate and uniform stocking over the area. We cannot rely 13.7 Advantages of
only upon it; we have to supplement it by artificial means. The plantation
natural regeneration in Sal-bearing moist deciduous forests in
Uttar Pradesh has always been a problem; fir and spruce forests
in Himachal Pradesh are also facing the same issue.
• Replacing Natural Regeneration by artificial means : Due to an
increase in the biotic pressure, natural regeneration in several
areas is lacking, slow, and uncertain. Therefore, it is necessary
to regenerate that area with the help of artificial means to
speed up the regeneration process (Remember, here we do not
just supplement the natural regeneration process. We actually
remove the majority of natural seedlings and replace them with
plantation).
• Restocking & revegetate (Reforestation) our degraded and
overexploited forest. That was damaged due to heavy biotic
pressure. We already have a target of 26 million hectares of
degraded land that should be reforested by 2030.
• Reclamation & Afforestation of Wastelands, abandoned
mining areas, and industrial dumping grounds.
• Increasing Proportion of Valuable Species : called - Forest
enrichment***, it also helps in making forest fire-resistant by
planting evergreen trees.
 SEED SUPPLY
CHAPTER

15

WHY WE REQUIRE SEED SUPPLY ?

• Our forests were already experiencing very heavy biotic pressure
Chapter Outline
and other stresses. Now, climate change and global warming are
further stressing them. The result? Most of our natural forests 15.2 Seed

are now failing to regenerate naturally. Therefore, if we want to 15.3 Seed collection

sustain our forests and ecosystems, we must artificially Requirements?

Collection methods
supplement them through nursery-raised plantations. (Can you
Time
recall the issue of Cardinal Temperature that we discussed in
15.4 Seed Processing
Chapter 3?).
15.5 Seed Storage
• Restoration of wastelands, abandoned mines, industrial
Orthodox v/s Recalci
dumping grounds, etc., requires artificially raised planting
Types of storage
material.
15.6 Seed treatment
• Our commitment to the INDC (under the Paris Agreement)
Seed dormancy
includes the creation of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of additional CO₂
Seed dressing
sinks by 2030. In addition, we have committed to restoring 26 15.7 Seed Testing
million hectares of degraded land by 2030 under the UNCCD Purity test
(2019, Greater Noida). Germination test
• Artificial plantation is also required under CAMPA, the National Viability test
Green Highway Project, and to meet the rising industrial demand Moisture content
for timber, pulp, and paper. 15.8 Eg

STEPS (A review of this chapter)

Figure 15.1 : basic

steps in the seed
collection process
 FOREST NURSERY
CHAPTER

16

Forest nurseries are dedicated enclosed facilities where planting

material is grown for transplantation purposes. These nurseries play
Chapter Outline
a vital role in afforestation, reforestation and enrichment plantation
16.1 Requirements of
projects to maintain and enhance forest ecosystems.
nursery
Seedlings are young plants obtained from seed sowing.
16.2 Types of Nurseries
These young plants can be about one meter in height. Transplants
16.3 Establishment of a
are seedlings that have transferred from one bed to another to make
permanent nursery
the seedlings suitable for planting. Seedlings, transplants, and other
16.4 Seed bed or Nursery
planting material, i.e., rooted cuttings etc., together are generally
bed
called planting stock.
16.5 Planting stock
16.1 REQUIREMENTS OF NURSERY? 16.6 Use of Containers for

Artificial regeneration of forests and afforestation of wastelands is raising seedlings

carried out either by sowing seeds directly in the field or/and 16.7 Stump preparation

planting nursery-raised seedlings, stumps, cuttings, etc. The easiest 16.8 Grading of planting

and cheapest method of artificial regeneration of forests and material

afforestation of wastelands is to sow the seeds of desired species 16.9 Nursery Journal

directly in the field and tend them to grow after the seeds have 16.10 Nursery Callender

germinated. Artificial regeneration by seed sowing has not shown 16.11 Nursery register

the desired results in the case of several species due to several

problems. Planting of Nursery-raised seedlings, stumps, cuttings,
rhizomes, etc., offers several advantages over seed sowing. These
advantages are as follows

• Several species are initially slow-grown. If seeds of these

species are sown in the field, the seedlings are most likely to be
swamped by weeds and killed by intense competition. The
nursery-raised seedlings are better equipped to compete with
weeds and tolerate adverse site factors, therefore, better
success is ensured in planting nursery-raised seedlings.
• Several species do not seed every year and produce good
quality seeds during a good seed year only. So, we can produce
seedlings in the Nursery by collecting seeds through he years.
 SOWING & PLANTING
CHAPTER

18

18.1 SITE SELECTION

The selection of a site is one of the vital considerations in the success of the
Chapter Outline
plantation program. If the plantation is raised in a regeneration area or
under a CAMPA plantation, the area is generally known. 18.1 Site selection, including
planting survey
Plantation sites are usually of four types - (a) degraded forest areas, where
18.2 Site Preparation
soil conditions are generally poor, and soil erosion is rampant, (b)
Soil working
wastelands where sites have one or several limiting factors, (c) forest area
Staking
where the plantation is to be established either due to absence of natural 18.3 Seed sowing
regeneration or replacement of existing crop and (iv) plantation work along Direct sowing
the rail, road, canal sides and agroforestry plantation in agricultural lands. Hydro

In most cases, the following points must be taken into consideration in the Aerial

selection of a site : 18.4 Planting-out : When ?

/Size/Age, Method,
• The sites for the plantation, as far as possible, should be easily Spacing, Planting pattern
approachable. If the site is not approachable, there are problems in 18.5 General Rules of
the transport of planting stock, plantation work, weeding, and other Planting
operations. There is a problem in the disposal of produce also. 18.6 Plantation journal
• There must be enough area for undertaking plantation for several
years. It facilitates supervision and protection.
• The site selected should be such that it is easy to obtain participation
and involvement of the local population.

Site Selection
Site allotted by the Govt.

Green Highway Corridor CAMPA Forest

 FORESTRY

TENDING OPERATION
CHAPTER

20

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY TENDING OR TENDING OPERATION?

From the establishment of the regeneration and subsequent growth to the harvesting, several operations are
carried out at different stages of growth in order to provide a healthy environment for their growth. These
operations are called tending operations –
• Weeding,
• Cleaning,
• Thinning & improvement felling
• Climber cutting
• Pruning
• Girdling of unwanted growths.

CULTURAL OPERATION ?

The operation, as a rule not directly remunerative, undertaken to assist or complete existing
regeneration, to promote the proper development of the crop or to minimize the after-effects of felling
damage. It, therefore, includes subsidiary felling, weeding, cleaning, unremunerative improvement fellings, and
thinning in groups of advance growth, girdling or poisoning of unwanted growth, climber cutting and even
piling of felling debris, and controlled-burning but usually not other ground operations nor pruning. It is
generally associated with silvicultural systems relying primarily on natural regeneration.
 CHAPTER
MANGROVES &
22 COLD DESERT

Mangroves form the coastal and estuarine wetland ecosystems in the tropical and subtropical regions of the
world. This unique intertidal ecosystem acts as a safeguard to the coastlines from the disastrous effects of
storm surges, erosion, and floods. Some mangroves occur along open coasts, subject to moderate wave
processes, while most of them grow in sheltered, muddy tracts that are either regularly or occasionally
immersed by tides

Definition : Mangroves are a diverse group of salt-tolerant plant communities found in the tropical and
subtropical coastal and intertidal zone of the world, occurring mainly between latitudes 240 N
and 380 S.

22.1 HABITAT

o The intertidal zone of coastal and estuarine mudflats.

o Diurnal tidal inundation of marine water, making the soil
loose, very wet, salty, and low in oxygen.
o The soil lacks minerals like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K), iron (Fe), and sulfur (S).
o Area experiences strong winds from cyclones and
tsunamis.
o The temperature ranges from 25-35°C, and there is 100 to
300 cm of rainfall annually
o Rich biodiversity because of the edge effect. Figure 22.1 : Mangroves habitat

22.2 DISTRIBUTION

Around 3 % of the earth’s

total mangrove vegetation
stands in India (FSI, 2021)
Mangroves Distribution

Rest coastal states/Uts

Maharashtra 7% 1
4 6%
West Bengal
Andhra Pradesh 43%
8%

Andaman &
3 Nicobar
12%

Gujarat
2 24%
 CHAPTER IMPORTANT INDIAN
23 TREE SPECIES

23.1 ACACIA NILOTICA (BABOOL)

• Syn. Acacia arabica*** = Gum arabic*** Lomentum

• Family : Mimosaceae*** (Leguminosae).
• Distribution : A tree of Semi-arid region***. Hardy to handle damages
created by cracking in black cotton soil***, drought, and moderate frost,
so, widely distributed over the north Indian plains, Rajasthan, MP, MH,
etc.
• Fruit : Lomentum*** type
• Phenology : medium-size deciduous tree with brood shape crown
o Leaf fall : April – May
o Leaf renewal : May - June
o Flowering : January to March
o Fruiting : ripen from April to June
o Thorny branches.
• SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
o Drought hardy.
o Frost resistant
Phenology*** is the seasonal changes in the plant
o Light demanded
behaviors over a year; it is the study of when plants
o Good copper
start flowering, fruiting, leaves shedding, etc.
o Root suckers
• UTILIZATION : Gum*** (Ladoo making), leaves Fodder, Fuelwood***, and Timber for farm implements.
Tannins from Bark and Pods***.

23.2 AZADIRACHTA INDICA (NEEM)

• Family : Meliaceae*** [Non-Leguminous = Rhizobium × = Nitrogen Fixation ×]***

• Distribution : Neem generally grows in tropical dry deciduous and
thorn forests in drier parts up to 1500 m.
• Phenology : Neem is a medium size (12 – 15 m) with a broad
rounded crown.

o It is an almost evergreen tree but becomes near leafless in

dry localities for a short period during February – march [Deciduous Tree*** ]
 FORESTRY

Except, Eucalyptus deglupta, commonly known as the

1. Eucalyptus deglupta does not occur
rainbow eucalyptus, or rainbow gum is a native of
in [APPSC (FRO) 2018 General Forestry
Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea Paper - I]
• Distribution : Eucalyptus is not confined to any particular (a) Australia
geographical locality. However, species like E. cameldulensis (b) Philippines
(c) Papua New Guinea
that can sustain under semi-arid conditions popularly
(d) Indonesia
growing in the semi-arid region of Rajasthan, Telangana,
2. Lignotubers are modified stems
and the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, where water
developed from double accessory
scarcity is an emerging issue.
buds in the axils of cotyledons found
in [APPSC Forest Section Officer 2019;
APPPSC (ACF) 2022]
Species Distribution
(a) Dalbergia sissoo
E. hybrid,
E. tereticornic, ≈ weather, pan India (b) Acacia arabica
E. globulus (c) Albizia chinensis
E. cameldulensis In Semi-arid region (d) Eucalyptus tereticornis
E. Grandis In High rainfall area 3. Cineole oil which is mostly used
pharmaceutical industry is obtained
• PHENOLOGY : Evergreens Species from the leaves of [Karnataka (ACF)
2009]
o Flowering : February – march, & in October
(a) Neem
• SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS : It is a light demander, (b) Babul
Large size (15-20 m height), deciduous tree with Cylindrical (c) Sal
(d) Eucalyptus
crown, and inability to tolerate much shade.

o Wind firm
o Root system : fairly widespread root system, both vertically and
horizontally.
o Snow : snow bending and breakage are common in snow-prone areas.
However, a few species are resistant to it, i.e., E. Rostrata.
o Forest fire : thick bark in few species, so do not suffer much from it.

• UTILIZATION : Fibres for Paper & Pulp Industry*** + Timber + Mysoore gum*** +
Citronella Leaves Oil*** + Eucalyptol or Cineoil***
Arterially growing Tectona
• Fast growing + Tolerant to water logging + High grandis in the form of
farm forestry, boundary
transpiration rate + = use for Biodrainage*** = plantation
Canal side plantation***

23.8 TEAK (Tectona grandis) = Paragon of Indian

24o N
timber***

• FAMILY : Verbenaceae***
• DISTRIBUTION* : Teaks are naturally Grown below
Natural growing region
24o North latitude*** on the Indian peninsula and of Tectona grandis
Nilambur teak
Myanmar, where a warm tropical climate with 100 plantation (1842)

© Hornbill classes 07223970423 [email protected] 229

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