Lesson 1: Philosophy

Lesson 1: PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy
-​ often called the “mother of all disciplines” because all areas of study started as
discussions and ideas in philosophy.
-​ Philosophy is the study of gaining knowledge through logical thinking and asking
questions about the nature of humans, life, and the world around us.

What is Self?
-​ It is described as a unified being closely tied to consciousness, awareness, and the
ability to act or make rational choices.

PHILOSOPHERS:

I.​ Ancient and Medieval Philosophers

●​ Ancient and Medieval philosophers believed that to truly understand yourself, you need
to look within and have control over your thoughts and actions. They thought the "self"
becomes better or more complete by reflecting on your life and making good choices.

A.​ SOCRATES
-​ “ The unexamined life is not worth living”
-​ To know and understand oneself, one should live an “examined” life.
-​ Living an examined life means having self-knowledge, being dignified with values and
integrity, having and applying wisdom, and recognizing ignorance.
-​ For Socrates, men’s goal in life is to obtain happiness. It motivates us to act towards or
avoid things that could have negative effects in our lives. As such, by fully knowing
oneself a person will be able to achieve happiness.

B.​ PLATO
-​ “Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge.”
-​ According to Plato, the examination of the self is a unique experience; it differs from
person to person, as one gets to discover things about him/herself. This experience then
leads to better understanding of the psyche (or a person’s inner self, like your thoughts,
feelings, emotions and personality)

Plato’s Three Elements of the Psyche:

1.​ Appetitive soul
-​ Includes our biological needs such as hunger, thirst and sexual desire.
2.​ Spirited Soul
-​ Basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, empathy and aggressiveness.
 3.​ Rational Soul
-​ The essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices and achieve a true
understanding of eternal truths.

C. ST. AUGUSTINE
-​ “This is the very perfection of man; to find out his own imperfections”
-​ St. Augustine saw himself as a sinner who acknowledged his mistakes and worked to
become better. He believed self-growth comes from self-acceptance and
self-awareness—recognizing strengths and weaknesses and striving for improvement.
-​ For St. Augustine, religious faith was key to becoming a better person. By turning to
one’s beliefs, a person could better understand themselves and find true happiness in
God.

II. MODERN PHILOSOPHIES

-​ Modern philosophy sees the self as a combination of two ideas: Rationalism and
Empiricism. Rationalism focuses on thinking and the belief that reason is the main
source of knowledge. Empiricism, however, is based on learning from our senses and
experiences.
-​ To understand the self, both thinking (reason) and personal experience are needed,
creating balance between the two ideas.

A.​ RENE DESCARTES

-​ “I think, therefore I am.”

-​ Rene Descartes is a pioneer of Rationalism. He believed that to truly understand
ourselves, we need to think carefully and use our minds.His idea, called Methodic Doubt,
means we should question everything—one step at a time—until we find something we
can be sure about. By doing this, we prove that we exist because the fact that we can
think and doubt shows that there is a real “self” doing the thinking.
-​ Human rationality, according to Descartes, is the primary condition for the existence of
the self. Human beings need to reason in order to:
●​ Evaluate thoughts
●​ Evaluate actions
●​ Establish firm foundation or bases
●​ Protect oneself
●​ Build knowledge

-​ Descartes says, “it is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.”
 B.​ JOHN LOCKE
-​ “No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience.”
-​ John Locke was an advocate of Empiricism. His concept of “tabula rasa” or blank slate
explains how the self starts out as an empty space. This empty space is then filled with
the experiences one has each and every day, where such experiences are necessary for
sense data what one sees, hears, smells, tastes, and touches. These sense data are
then perceived or given meaning, and so the empty space is filled with knowledge of the
self.
-​ Locke emphasized that people learn from their experiences and use those experiences
to form more complex ideas. This process leads to self-knowledge. In simple terms,
experience comes before knowledge.

C.​ DAVID HUME

-​ “There is no self”
-​ David Hume believed that the self isn’t really a permanent thing. He said that what we
call the “self” is just made up of all the things we feel, see, hear, and experience. But
these experiences are always changing, and they depend on the moment. So, our idea
of “who we are” can change over time or even be completely different later on.

D.​ IMMANUEL KANT

-​ “If man makes himself a worm, he must not complain when he is trodden on”
-​ Immanuel Kant believed that the self is not just about the body, but something deeper.
He combined thinking (rationalism) and experiences (empiricism) to explain how we
understand ourselves and the world. He said our mind connects ideas and experiences
to make sense of everything. So, how we think about ourselves and how we act can
affect how others see us too.

III. CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES

A.​ SIGMUND FREUD

-​ Freud is the Father of Psychoanalysis. He is famous for studying human nature and the
unconscious mind. He believed that people have different parts of their personality and
explained how different levels of consciousness help shape a person’s sense of self.
-​ According to Freud a person has 3 aspects of personality
1.​ ID -The child aspect of a person; focused on satisfying one’ s needs and
self-gratification. It is driven by the pleasure principle.
2.​ SUPEREGO - The conscience of one’s personality. It leans toward upholding
justice and doing what is morally right and socially acceptable. It is shaped by the
sense of right or wrong imparted by parents or caregivers during childhood.
 3.​ EGO - Acts as the mediator between the id and the superego. It operates within
the boundaries of reality, with its primary role being to control the impulses of the
id to an acceptable level.

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS according to Freud:​

1. Conscious - This is where a small part of our memories is stored. These memories are easy
to access.
2. Preconscious - The middle level of consciousness. Memories here can still be accessed but
require a bit more effort.
3. Unconscious - The deepest level, where most of our childhood memories are stored.
Accessing these memories is very difficult and often requires a trained professional using
special techniques to bring them to the surface.

B. GILBERT RYLE
-​ “I act, therefore I am”
-​ He believed that who we are is shown by how we act and behave. Our actions and
emotions show what’s going on in our minds. He didn’t think the mind and body are
separate — he saw them as connected. Instead of talking about the soul or unseen
things, he focused on what we can see and observe to understand the self.

C. MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
-​ Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher, is known for his work on existentialism and
phenomenology. He introduced the concept of the “phenomenology of perception”, which
explains the unity of the mind and body, treating them as one rather than separate.
-​ His idea of perception aligns with Gestalt psychology, which emphasizes understanding
the whole instead of focusing on individual parts. According to him, our perceptions,
shaped by experiences, guide our actions. The body gathers information through
perception, while consciousness interprets and gives meaning to it. The self is formed
through these perceptions of the world, and our actions, behavior, and language reflect
this understanding.

D. PAUL CHURCHLAND
-​ A Canadian philosopher, focuses on how we define the self through the workings of the
brain. He believes that the self is shaped by the constant activity of the brain, which and
his wife emphasize with the idea that “the brain is the self”.
-​ Churchland’s philosophy, called “eliminative materialism”, explores how neural pathways
in the brain function and how these movements affect behavior. By studying these brain
processes, he suggests we can better understand and measure a person’s actions and
identity.
​
Lesson 2: Sociology
Lesson 2: Sociology
Sociology
-​ Is the study of society and human behavior. It looks at how people interact with each
other, how groups are formed, and how social institutions (like family, education, religion,
government, etc.) affect our lives.

Sociology helps us understand:

●​ Why people behave the way they do in groups

●​ How society shapes our thoughts, values, and actions
●​ How social problems (like poverty, gender inequality, racism) develop and how they can
be solved​

Sociologists ask questions like:

●​ Why do people follow rules?

●​ How does culture influence identity?
●​ What causes social change?

A.​ GEORGE HERBERT MEAD

“Theory of Self”

-​ Mead’s theory explains how the self develops through social interaction:

Two Parts of the Self:

●​ Self-awareness
●​ Self-image

Key Ideas:

-​ Our bodies age biologically, but the self evolves through social interactions.
-​ Interaction with others shapes our self-concept by making us reflect on how others
perceive us.
-​ The self is like a reflection of how others react to us.
-​ We develop a self-image by imagining how others see us and understanding their
perspectives (imitation).
-​ Internalizing cultural norms and expectations leads to the concept of the “generalized
other” (the societal expectations we learn to adopt).
-​ By considering other’s role, we become self-aware.
TWO COMPONENTS OF THE SELF:

1.​ “ I “ - The spontaneous, active and creative part of the self (what you do in the moment).
2.​ “ Me “ - The reflective, socially shaped part of the self (how society sees you based on
interactions)

According to Mead’s theory, there are three stages of self development which can be
observed in children:

1.​ Preparatory Stage - A child gets to interact with others through imitation. Imitations aren’t
real interactions but it helps a child learn how to respond to others. This stage helps
formulate communication abilities.
2.​ Play Stage - A child takes on various roles and understands other’s perspectives. They
express expectations of others through pretend play.
3.​ Game Stage - A child starts to experience, understand, and adhere to certain rules set.
The child is also exposed to the idea of the existence of expectations from others, and
the possibility of having multiple roles.

B. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY

-​ “Looking Glass Self”

-​ Self concept - is shaped by how we think others see us. Cooley suggested that our
sense of self develops through social interactions with others. How insecure or confident
we feel in social situations depends on what we believe others think of us. In simple
terms, the “Self” is how we think others view us.
-​ The “Looking Glass self”, involves three steps that are beneficial to understand the self
and society today.

Cooley emphasized the individual’s autonomous role in deciding which judgements they pay
attention to identify formation, as well as in controlling and evaluating the responses of others.

1.​ Private Self - an assessment of self by the self.

2.​ Public Self - an assessment of the self by generalized others
3.​ Collective Self - cognition concerning the view of the self as a member of a social group.

Labeling Bias - happens when people are given labels, and those labels influence how others
see and expect them to behave.
Self-Labeling - happens when an individual adopts a label or identity, either positively or
negatively, and this shapes how they see themselves and behave. This can lead to:

Internalized prejudice - where individuals start to view themselves negatively based on the
labels they’ve received, lowering their self-esteem. On the other hand, some people may
reclaim negative labels in a positive way. For instance, individuals from various groups might
take negative labels like “queer” “shy” or “loser” and view them more positively, feeling
empowered by redefining them.

C. HENRI TAJFEL

-​ “The Social Identity Theory”

-​ According to him, we tend to evaluate ourselves and others based on both our personal
and social identities:
a.​ Personal Identity - is one’s unique being.
b.​ Social Identity - is one’s sense of being based on their perceived belongingness to a
group.

Social Identity Theory

-​ states that the ingroup will discriminate against the out-group to enhance their
self-image.
a.​ An in-group is a group to which a person identifies as being a member.
b.​ An out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

Stereotyping

-​ The act of putting people into categories is based on our natural tendency to group
things together.
-​ This could be dangerous and is actually the root of prejudice.

a.​ Social Categorization

-​ This is when we mentally group people (including ourselves) into categories like race,
gender, class, religion, etc.
-​ Purpose: to simplify the social world and make it easier to understand others.
 b.​ Social Identification
-​ This is when we adopt the identity of the group we’ve categorized ourselves in (e.g.,
identifying as a student, athlete, or Filipino).

c.​ Social Comparison

-​ This is when we compare our group to other groups, usually to make our group look
better and boost our self-esteem.
-​ It can lead to prejudice or discrimination if we see other groups as inferior.

D. ERVING GOFFMAN

-​ In his study, he stated that individuals try to present the self and behave in a way that will
prevent them from embarrassment.
-​ This is because people have expectations of how each other should behave.

Impression Management

-​ Is a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the

perceptions of other people about a person, object or even regulating and controlling
information.

Eg.:

-​ A girl who only shares good things about her boyfriend to her parents may be trying to
present him as a good catch so they can stay together.
-​ If a woman spends hours thinking about the right outfit to wear to a party, she may be
trying to present herself as beautiful & stylish while looking for a date.
Lesson 3: Anthropology
Lesson 3: Anthropology​

Anthropology
-​ is derived from
-​ two Greek words Antropos meaning “man” or “human” Logos (logy) refers to the “study
of”
-​ Is the study of humans, past and present. It looks at how people live, think, behave and
evolve over time and across cultures.

Anthropology helps us understand:

●​ Where we came from
●​ How different cultures live and think
●​ What makes us human

FOUR MAIN BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1.​ Cultural Anthropology - studies human cultures, beliefs, traditions, and social practices.
2.​ Physical or Biological Anthropology - studies human evolution, genetics, and physical
traits.
3.​ Archaeology - studies past human societies through artifacts, tools, and ruins.
4.​ Linguistic Anthropology - studies how language affects and reflects culture.

Anthropologist often ask:

●​ How did early humans live?
●​ Why do cultures differ?
●​ What do rituals and traditions mean?

EDWARD TAYLOR
-​ An English anthropologist, regarded as the founder of cultural anthropology.
-​ He defines culture as the system of human behavior and thought.

Culture
-​ Culture refers to the arts and achievements of humans as a whole.
-​ Culture is the way a group of people live, including their traditions, art, beliefs, and
accomplishments.
-​ The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution
or organization.
-​ The integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the
capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations.
-​ It includes the following:
1. Religion/celebrations
2. Language
3. Manners
 4. Way of dressing/clothing
5. Food
6. Medical cure
7. Jokes
8. Folk art

Differential Cultural Perspective that Influence the “Self”:

A. Material Component
- pertains to all tangible materials that are inherited from the previous generation. (things that
was used before and we are using until now)
B. Cognitive Component
- pertains to all body of knowledge, skills and other capabilities handed down from generation to
another.
C. Normative Component
- pertains to prescription or standards of behavior that govern the relationship of individuals in
the society.

Social Norms
-​ are unwritten rules or expectations about how people should behave in a particular
society, group, or culture.
-​ They tell us what is considered acceptable or unacceptable, right or wrong, or polite or
rude in a given situation.

1.​ Folkways - general rules of customary and habitual ways, patterns of expected behavior
in society but not that very serious if broken. This can be learned in school & through our
parents.
2.​ Mores (mo-rays) - refers to the special folkways that are generally emphasized because
they are necessary for the welfare of the society, there is a law enforcing it.

Cultural Change
-​ No society is in a constant state. Everything is changing (the only constant in life is
change)

1.​ Cultural Lag - The phenomenon that occurs when changes in material culture occur
before or at a faster rate than the changes in non-material culture.
2.​ Cultural Borrowing - is a situation where one society borrows culture from another
society and uses it as a new part of its culture.

Culture Shock
-​ refers to feelings of uncertainty, confusion, or anxiety that people may experience when
moving to a new country or experiencing a new culture or surroundings. This cultural
adjustment is normal and is the result of being in an unfamiliar environment.
Lesson 4: Psychology
Lesson 4: Psychology
Psychology
-​ is a scientific discipline that studies mental processes and behavior in humans and other
animals.
-​ Psyche – Greek word means soul or the mind. Logos/ logy – means to study.
-​ is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It involves the systematic
investigation of how individuals think, feel, and behave, based on observable behavior,
brain function, and cognitive processes.

Behavior - overt; can be directly observe

Mental Processes - internal experiences happen in your life such as sensation thinking,
studying, dreams, thoughts and feelings.

HISTORICAL APPROACH

A.​ OBJECTIVE INTROSPECTION

-​ It was a method of exploring conscious mental processes by asking subjects to look
inward (or to look deeper) and report their sensation and perceptions.

WILLIAM JAMES
-​ is known as the father of American psychology and the founder of the school of thought
called Functionalism- lectures on how the mind allows people to function in the real
world – how people work, play and adapt to their surroundings.
-​ James used introspection in a more natural and practical way, focusing on how thoughts
and emotions help us adapt to real-life situations.

B.​ GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

-​ “The whole is greater than sum of its parts”.
-​ German word meaning “an organized whole” or “configuration”, which fit well with the
focus on studying whole patterns rather than small pieces of them.

C.​ BEHAVIORISM
-​ is a theory in psychology that focuses on observable behavior rather than thoughts or
feelings. It believes that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment.

1.​ Classical Conditioning

-​ A kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response
that was originally produced by a different stimulus.
Stimulus - it is a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction or that elicits reaction.
(Anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change)

Ivan Pavlov
-​ was a Russian physiologist best known for his work on classical conditioning, a key
concept in psychology and behaviorism.
-​ discovered that animals (and people) can learn through association. He showed this
through a famous experiment with dogs.

His Experiment:
1.​ Pavlov noticed that dogs would salivate not just when they saw food, but even when
they heard sounds associated with feeding (like a bell).
2.​ So, he rang a bell before giving the dog food.
3.​ After repeating this several times, the dog began to salivate at the sound of the bell
alone, even without food.

●​ This showed that a neutral stimulus (bell) could become a conditioned stimulus that
triggers a learned response (salivation) when paired with something meaningful (food).

EDWARD THORNDIKE

-​ was an American psychologist best known for his work on learning and behavior,
especially with animals. He is considered one of the pioneers of behaviorism and
educational psychology.
-​ Founder of Connectionism Theory

●​ Connectionism Theory
-​ Where learning happens through connections formed between stimuli (what we
experience) and responses (how we react). These connections are strengthened
or weakened depending on the out

The Experiment:
1.​ He placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box.
2.​ The cat had to figure out how to escape the box to get food.
3.​ At first, the cat would try random actions.
4.​ Eventually, it accidentally pressed a lever and escaped.
5.​ After repeating the experiment, the cat learned to press the lever faster each time.

●​ Animals (and humans) learn through trial and error. Successful actions get
strengthened and repeated. This idea helped shape operant conditioning later
developed by B.F. Skinner.
2. Operant Conditioning
-​ is a learning theory developed by B.F. Skinner, a famous American psychologist and
behaviorist.
-​ is learning through rewards and punishments. Wherein behaviors followed by
rewards are more likely to be repeated while behaviors followed by punishment are less
likely to happen again.
-​ B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is not just a reaction to stimuli (like in classical
conditioning), but is actively shaped by consequences.
-​ Operant conditioning is widely used in education, parenting, training, and behavior
therapy.

In Skinner’s Experiment: (Rats)

1.​ A rat was placed in the box.
2.​ Inside, there was a lever and a food dispenser.
3.​ When the rat accidentally pressed the lever, a food pellet was released.
4.​ Over time, the rat learned that pressing the lever gave it food.
5.​ As a result, it started pressing the lever more often.

Positive Reinforcement
-​ The act of rewarding a positive behavior in order to encourage it to happen again in the
future.

Negative Reinforcement
-​ Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus.
-​ The idea of taking away an unwanted stimulus in order to encourage good behavior.

●​ Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to the situation, while negative

reinforcement removes an undesirable stimulus, both in the service of reinforcing the
behavior that was displayed.

MODERN APPROACH

A.​ Psychodynamic Perspective

-​ Is based on the belief that childhood experiences greatly influence the development of
later personality traits and psychological problems.
-​ is a theory that focuses on the unconscious mind, inner conflicts, and early childhood
experiences as key influences on behavior.
Psychological Concepts:

1.​ Real and Ideal Self

Real Self - is who we actually are. It is how we think, how we feel, look, and act. The real self
can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the
real self is our self-image.

Ideal Self - on the other hand, is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have
developed over time, based on what we have learned and experienced.

2.​ Multiple vs. Unified Selves

Multiple Selves - individuals have different identities or personas that they present depending on
the situation.
Unified Selves - This view holds that an individual has one cohesive identity, consistently
expressed across different contexts.

Example:​
You act respectfully and reserved with your parents, playful with friends, and professional with
teachers — each version is part of your "self."

3.​ True vs False Selves

True Self - our authentic identity, reflecting our true values, beliefs and natural inclinations.
False Self - a persona that is shaped by external pressures or expectations, not necessarily
reflecting our true feelings or desires.​

Healthy False Self

-​ is described as one which allows someone to be functional in society. A healthy false self
is one that works with and stays committed to the true self. It is a form of useful self-
protection, in that it shields us at times when vulnerability would not be appropriate, or
might even be harmful.

Unhealthy False Self

-​ is the one behind many dysfunctional behaviors, including narcissism and addiction. The
one that fits into society through forced compliance rather than a desire to adapt.
Lesson 5: Western and Oriental
Lesson 5: The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought
Concept of Self
-​ There are a lot of sources in which we can analyze the perspective of each culture and
country about the concept of the “self”.

Cultural Diversity
-​ refers to the presence of many different cultures, beliefs, traditions, languages, and
lifestyles within a society or group.
-​ It means people come from different backgrounds and express their identity in various
ways — through food, religion, clothing, music, values, and customs.

Western Eastern

Values Emphasizes more on the with their collectivistic culture,

value of equality even if they put more emphasis on
see that the individual can hierarchy as the culture
rise above everything wants to keep things in
else. Because everyone is on harmony and order.
their own competition,one
can say that they also
promote ideals that create
“fair” competition and protect
the individual.

Self-description Talk more about their In general talk about their

personal attributes when social roles or the social
describing themselves. situations that invoked certain
traits that they deem positive
for themselves.

Self-evaluations They would highlight their They would rather keep a low
personal achievements. profile as promoting the self
can be seen as boastfulness
that disrupts social
relationships.

Individualistic Collectivist

●​ Talk more about their ●​ The group and social

personal attributes when relations is given more
describing themselves . importance than
●​ Highlight their personal individual needs and
 achievements wants.
●​ Looks at the world in ●​ Talk about their social
DUALITIES wherein you roles or the social
are distinct from the situations that invoked
other person, the creator certain traits that they
is separate from the deem positive for
object he created themselves.
●​ Keep a low profile as
promoting the self can
be seen as boastfulness
that disrupts social
relationships
●​ Sees the other person
as part of yourself as
well as the things you
may create, a drama in
which everyone is
interconnected with their
specific roles

●​ CONFUCIANISM
-​ Also called Ruism, it is it is a tradition and philosophy based on the teachings of
Chinese philosopher CONFUCIUS (551-479 BCE). who considered himself a
re-codifier and re-transmitter of the theology and values inherited from the Shang
and Zhou dynasty.

-​ It is focused on having a harmonious social life. Identity and self-concept of the

individual are interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or
culture, sharing its pride as well as its failures.

Subdued Self - Personal needs are set aside for the greater good, with Confucian societies
structured hierarchically to maintain order and balance.

THREE ESSENTIAL CORE VALUES OF CONFUCIANISM:

1.​ Filial Piety - respect for elders
2.​ Humaneness - goodness
3.​ Ritual - proper conduct

5 BASIC VIRTUES OF CONFUCIANISM

1.​ Ren - benevolence, humaneness
2.​ Yi - righteous, justice
3.​ Li - proper, rite
4.​ Zhi - knowledge
5.​ Xin - integrity
 ●​ TAOISM
-​ Also known as Daoism. A chinese philosophy based on the writings of Lao-tzu
advocating humility and religious piety.
-​ teaches people to live in harmony with the Tao (or Dao).

Tao (The Way)

-​ is the invisible force that flows through all life. It's not a god, but a natural order that
should be followed, not controlled.

Balance and Harmony (Yin and Yang)

-​ Life is full of opposite forces (light/dark, male/female, active/passive). Both are
necessary, and true harmony comes from balancing them.
-​ Tao chi diagram

Tao Te Ching
- a book of short poems and teachings about the Tao.

Taoism teaches us to live peacefully, accept life as it is, and stay in tune with the natural
world. It values inner peace, humility, and harmony over control and ambition.

●​ BUDDHISM
-​ is a spiritual tradition and philosophy that began in India around 2,500 years ago.
-​ Was founded by Siddharta Gautama, who became known as the Buddha, meaning “The
Enlightened One”.

-​ It is the world’s 4th-largest religion, with over 520M followers or over 7% of the global
population are Buddhists. It is an Indian religion. All Buddhist traditions share the GOAL
OF OVERCOMING SUFFERING AND THE CYCLE OF DEATH & REBIRTH, either by
the attainment of Nirvana or through the path of Buddhahood.

●​ HINDUISM
-​ is one of the oldest religions in the world, originating in India over 4,000 years ago.
-​ It is more than a religion — it is also a way of life, with teachings on how to live, think,
act, and understand the universe.
Key Beliefs of Hinduism
1.​ Brahman - the supreme universal spirit or source of everything. All gods and living
things come from Brahman.
2.​ Atman - the soul or true self of every person, which is eternal and part of Brahman.
3.​ Karma - the belief that every action has consequences. Good actions bring good results;
bad actions bring suffering.
4.​ Samsara (Reincarnation) - the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
5.​ Moksha - the “ultimate goal”: to break free from the cycle of reincarnation and unite with
Brahman,

Sacred Texts/Books:
1.​ Vedas - Ancient scripture full of hymns, rituals and spiritual knowledge.
2.​ Upanishads - teachings about the soul and Brahman
3.​ Bhagavad Gita - a popular text that talks about duty, devotion and the nature of life.

Different Types of Gods/Brahman:

1.​ Brahma - the creator
2.​ Vishnu - the preserver
3.​ Shiva - the destroyer
Lesson 6: The Physical Self
LESSON 6: THE PHYSICAL SELF

Body Image
-​ Is an individual’s mental representation of their own body.

TWO TYPES OF BODY IMAGE:

1.​ Internal/Personal - Person’s perception of the level of attractiveness of his own body;
produces either satisfying or unsatisfying results
2.​ External/Social - Sense of how other people view our bodies

Body Image Dissatisfaction - occurs when there is a discrepancy between actual (what you
really look like) and ideal body image (what you want to look like)

Beauty

-​ is the quality of something or someone that gives pleasure, satisfaction, or admiration,

especially through appearance, harmony, or meaningful expression.

There are TWO GENERAL TYPES OF BEAUTY:

1.​ External beauty

-​ physical characteristics of a person.
-​ Usually what is considered as pleasant to the aesthetic senses.
2.​ Inner beauty
-​ Pertains to the inner qualities of a person.

Aesthetic Capital - refers to the privileges and wealth people receive from aesthetic traits such
as their face, hair, body clothes, grooming habits, and other markers of beauty.

Samantha Lovascio - Proposed that aesthetic traits impact our lives in matters of modest
importance (e.g., friend selection) and matters of great importance (e.g., career mobility). This
advertisement depicts this concept of aesthetic capital.

How does culture influence our perception of beauty?

“All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet their
cultural standards of beauty, as well as their religious and/or social obligations” - De Mello

People seek to conform to certain standards of beauty through the following:

1.​ Body Adornment - Practice of physically enhancing the body by temporary means such
as styling and decorating
 2.​ Body Modification - Temporary or permanent physical alteration of the body through
means such as surgery, tattooing, piercing, and the like

The end result of having a poor body image:

a.​ Body dissatisfaction
b.​ Low self esteem
c.​ Body modification
d.​ Eating disorder (anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa)
e.​ Depression

●​ Anorexia Nervosa
-​ is an eating disorder characterized by an abnormally low body weight, an intense fear of
gaining weight and a distorted perception of weight.
-​ It is defined as a serious mental illness where people are of low weight due to limiting
their energy intake.

●​ Bulimia Nervosa
-​ An eating disorder that causes you to eat large amounts of food at one time (binge) and
then get rid of it (purge).

CULTURE OF PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT

-​ This culture pertains to the belief of people that all bodily processes should be under our
control. This culture also trains us to be ashamed of body parts that refuse to comply
with the cultural ideal.

Body Shame

-​ is the feeling of embarrassment, guilt, or discomfort someone has about their physical
appearance, especially when they believe their body doesn’t meet society’s standards of
beauty.
-​ Body shame is not a natural response to being fat, physically impaired, chronically sick,
or old. It is a culturally conditioned response to a commercially fabricated fantasy of
physical perfection.

Why does body shame happen?

-​ It can be caused by:

a.​ Negative comments or teasing about someone’s body or physical appearance.
b.​ Unrealistic beauty standards in social media.
c.​ Cultural or family pressure to look a certain way.
d.​ Comparing oneself to others.
Effects of Body Shaming:

1.​ Low self-esteem

2.​ Depression or anxiety
3.​ Eating disorders
4.​ Social Withdrawal
Lesson 7: The Sexual Self
Lesson 7: The Sexual Self
●​ Sex
-​ Refers to the physical and biological characteristics a person is born with. This
includes: Sex Organs (like penis or vagina), Chromosomes (XX or XY) and Hormones
(like estrogen and testosterone).
-​ It can only refer to as “sexual activity” or physical intimacy or sexual acts between
people.

1.​ Chromosomes
-​ Most males have XY chromosomes, and most females have XX chromosomes.
2.​ Hormones
-​ Testosterone is typically higher in males and influences traits like muscle mass
and facial hair.
-​ Estrogen and progesterone are typically higher in females and play roles in
reproductive development.
3.​ Reproductive Anatomy
-​ Males usually have testes, a penis, and produce sperm.
-​ Females usually have ovaries, a uterus, and produce eggs.
-​ Intersex individuals may have a mix of male and female biological traits, which
can include variations in genitalia, hormone levels, or internal reproductive
structures.

4.​ Secondary sex characteristics

-​ Males: Deeper voice, facial hair, increased muscle mass.
-​ Females: Breast development, wider hips, menstrual cycle.

●​ Gender
-​ Refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed.
-​ A social construct that determines one’s roles, expected values, behavior and interaction
in relationships involving men and women.

Gender Identity - It is one’s innermost concept of self as male or female or both or neither. It is
the way an individual perceives himself. One’s gender identity can be the same or different than
the sex assigned at birth.

a.​ Cisgender - a term for people whose gender identity aligns with their assigned sex at
birth.
b.​ Transgender - an umbrella term for people whose gender identity is different from those
associated with their assigned sex at birth.
c.​ Nonbinary - someone whose gender identity isn’t exclusively male or female, may
include both or neither.
 d.​ Genderfluid - a gender identity that varies or changes over time.

Gender Expression
-​ It is the way in which people outwardly interact their gender identity to others through
behavior, clothing, haircut, voice and facial other forms of presentation.

Factors:

1.​ Clothing and Fashion 5.​ Make up and accessories

2.​ Hairstyle and grooming 6.​ Social and cultural variations
3.​ Body language and mannerisms 7.​ Digital online expression
4.​ Voice and speech patterns

Gender Role - is a set of social and behavioral expectations for how people should act, dress,
speak, and behave based on their gender. These roles vary by society and are often tied to
being male, female, or another gender.

●​ Sexual Orientation
-​ is about who you are emotionally, romantically, or sexually attracted to.

SOGIE
- is an acronym that is mostly used to understand human sexuality.
S - Sexual
O - Orientation and
G - Gender
I - Identity and
E - Expression

TYPES OF SEXUALITY:
1.​ Heterosexuality
-​ is a sexual orientation characterized by romantic or sexual attraction to individuals of the
opposite sex or gender. In other words, heterosexual people are typically attracted to
people who are of a different gender than themselves
2.​ Homosexuality
-​ is a sexual orientation characterized by romantic or sexual attraction to individuals of the
same sex or gender. This means:
-​ Gay men are attracted to other men.
-​ Lesbian women are attracted to other women.
3.​ Bisexuality
-​ is a sexual orientation characterized by romantic or sexual attraction to more than one
gender. This typically means attraction to both men and women.
 4.​ Pansexual
-​ is a sexual orientation characterized by attraction to people regardless of their gender.
Pansexual people often describe their attraction as being based more on personality,
emotional connection, or other traits rather than someone's gender identity.
5.​ Asexual
-​ is a sexual orientation characterized by little to no sexual attraction to others. Asexual
(or “ace”) people may still experience romantic attraction, emotional connections, and
relationships, but they generally do not feel the desire for sexual activity in the way that
sexual people do.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproductive System – a system of reproductive organs designed for reproduction or sexual
function.

Sex Characteristics
1.​ Primary Sex Characteristics
2.​ Secondary Sex Characteristics

●​ PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS

-​ The primary characteristics of the reproductive system include its role in sexual
reproduction, the production of gametes (sperm and eggs), and the development of
secondary sexual characteristics.

Primary Sexual Organs (Gonads):

A.​ Male: Testes/ testicles

○​ Produce sperm (male gametes) through spermatogenesis.
○​ Secrete male sex hormones, primarily testosterone.
B.​ Female: Ovaries
○​ Produce eggs (ova) through oogenesis.
○​ Secrete female sex hormones, such as estrogen and progesterone.

Accessory Reproductive Organs:

A.​ Male:
-​ Ducts: Epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts, and urethra for sperm transport.
-​ Glands: Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands produce seminal
fluid.
-​ External Genitalia: Penis and scrotum.
 B.​ Female:
-​ Ducts: Fallopian tubes (oviducts) for egg transport and fertilization, uterus for
implantation, and vagina for childbirth and intercourse.
-​ External Genitalia: Vulva, including labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening.

HORMONES

1.​ Estrogen - a group of hormones that promote the development and maintenance of
female characteristics of the body such as breast and pubic hair.
2.​ Testosterone - stimulates the development of male secondary sexual characteristics
produced mainly in the testes.
3.​ Progesterone - stimulates the uterus to prepare for pregnancy.

PHASES OF THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE

Phase 1: Excitement phase
-​ Initiated by physical or psychological stimulation.
-​ Increased heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension.

Phase 2: Plateau phase

-​ Heightened arousal and intensified physical changes.
-​ Further increase in heart rate and muscle tension.
Males: Full erection, pre-ejaculatory fluid may be released.
Females: Clitoral sensitivity increases, vaginal walls continue to swell.

Phase 3: Orgasm phase

-​ Peak of sexual pleasure with rhythmic muscle contractions.
Males: Ejaculation occurs.
Females: Uterine and vaginal contractions.
-​ Release of endorphins, promoting feelings of pleasure and relaxation.

Phase 4: Resolution Phase

-​ Body gradually returns to its normal state.

-​ Decrease in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension.
-​ Refractory period in males (temporary inability to achieve another orgasm).
-​ Females may remain aroused and capable of multiple orgasms.

Remember, Consent must be given when deciding to engage in sexual intercourse. Consent
has to be:

1.​ Explicit
2.​ Change of mind is possible
3.​ Slowing things down or stopping is okay
4.​ Affected by drink and drugs
Lesson 8: The Material Self
LESSON 8: THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF

WILLIAM JAMES
-​ According to William James the Me-self consists of MATERIAL SELF along with social
and spiritual self.
-​ He pointed out that MATERIAL SELF consists of things that belong to a person or
entities that a person belongs to.

The MATERIAL SELF is composed of body, family, clothes and other material things, and
money.

●​ The material component of the self can include books, bed, money, gadgets, car, house
and other things that person can call his OWN POSSESSION.

COMPOSITION OF MATERIAL SELF:

1.​ Body
-​ Innermost part of our material self
-​ We are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without it
-​ We strive to make sure that this body functions well and good
-​ We do have certain preferential attachment to or intimate closeness to certain parts
because of its value to us.

2.​ CLOTHES
-​ Clothing is a form of SELF- EXPRESSION
-​ The style & brand of clothes becomes a symbolic significance
-​ We choose and wear clothes that reflect ourselves.
-​ The fabric & style of the clothes we wear bring sensations to the body and can affect our
attitude and behavior.

3.​ IMMEDIATE FAMILY

-​ These people are likely to shape & influence the development of self- identity
-​ What they do affects us.
-​ We invest in our immediate family when we see them as the nearest replica of
ourselves.
-​ When an immediate family member dies, a part of ourselves dies with them.
-​ We celebrate victories and success with them.
-​ When they are in a difficult situation, there is an urge to help them.

4.​ HOME
-​ Home is where our heart is.
 -​ It is the earliest nest of our selfhood
-​ Our experiences inside the home were recorded & marked on particular parts & things in
our home.
-​ The home is an Extension of the SELF, because it is where we can directly connect
ourselves.
-​ There was an old cliché about rooms: “If only walls can speak”.

Needs - Refer to the things that are essentials, our basic needs to live.
WANTS - Refer to luxuries, at times for they are not important because they ate too expensive.
UTILITY - is how we use things for a particular or practical purpose or mainly the usage of
material things.
SIGNIFICANCE - Is concerned with the MEANING assigned to the object.

WHAT IS THE ECONOMIC SELF?

-​ You as a part of the consumerism process. The one that purchases goods and avails
services.

MATERIALISM VS CONSUMERISM

MATERIALISM
-​ is one’s preoccupation with material possessions and physical comfort. Refers to a
characteristic in an individual.
CONSUMERISM
-​ is a theory that states increasing consumption of goods is economically desirable.
Describes society as a whole.

“I shop therefore I am, I have therefore I am”

-​ It describes the tendency of people living in a capitalist economy to engage in a lifestyle
of excessive materialism, which revolves around wasteful or conspicuous
overconsumption.

CONSUMERISM
-​ States that increasing consumption of goods is economically desirable.
CONSUMPTION
-​ Is an activity in which institutional units use up goods or services; The final purchase of
goods and services by individuals.
Lesson 9: The Spiritual Self
LESSON 9: THE SPIRITUAL SELF

The Spiritual Self is the subjective and most intimate dimension of the self. It is who we are at
our core.

I.​ SPIRITUALITY

SPIRITUALITY
-​ seeking and expressing the meaning and purpose of one’s life. It speaks of the quality of
one’s relationships with others and with the Divine. It embraces all faiths and social and
political ideologies. Spiritually reflects great refinement or a high level of Christian
maturity and concern with, as well as direct and personal connection with the Divine or
Sacred.

RELIGION
-​ belief and worship of a personal God or gods. It is a set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas, and
practices that define the relationship between human beings and the sacred.

●​ While spirituality and religion are related, they are not the same. Both deal with
questions about meaning, life, and connection, but they differ in how people experience
and express these ideas.

Religion Spirituality

Definition Following a set of beliefs and Personal search for meaning

rules. and peace.

Practice Often done in groups (e.g. Often done alone (e.g.

church, temple) meditation, reflection)

Structure Organized, with rituals, Flexible, no set of rules or

leaders and holy books. required practices.

Belief in God Believes in a specific god or May or may not believe in a

gods. god.

Guidance Follows teachings or Follows personal values or

scriptures inner voice

Focus Outer practices (worship, Inner experiences (peace,

prayer, tradition) connection, growth)

Goal To obey God or reach To find balance, peace or

 salvation/enlightenment purpose.

Example Christianity, Islam, Hinduism Meditation, connecting with

nature,self reflection.

II.​ THE SOUL

SOUL
-​ is the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being, that which confers individuality
and humanity, often considered to be synonymous with the mind or the self. In theology,
the soul is further defined as that part of the individual which partakes of divinity and
often is considered to survive the death of the body.

III.​ RITUALS AND CEREMONIES

RITUAL
-​ is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way.
-​ means “conforming to religious rites,” which are the sacred, customary ways of
celebrating a religion or culture.

IV.​ CULT, MAGIC AND WITCHCRAFT

CULT
-​ A group with strong devotion to a leader or belief, often outside mainstream religion.
-​ May control members’ behavior and beliefs.
-​ Can be harmless or dangerous, depending on the group’s practices and leadership.

Example: A group that follows a leader claiming to be a prophet and demands total loyalty.

WITCHCRAFT

-​ The practice of using spells, rituals, or natural energies to affect the world.
-​ Traditionally associated with healing, nature, or spiritual work.
-​ Often misunderstood or feared, especially in history.

Example: A person using herbs and chants for healing or protection.

FILIPINO TERMS:

1.​ Mangkukulam – (witch) believed to cause illness or misfortune using black magic.
2.​ Albularyo – folk healers who use rituals, prayers, and herbal remedies (not always seen
as witches).
 3.​ Anting-anting – sacred amulets said to give protection, strength, or invisibility. Often worn
by fighters or policemen.
4.​ Gayuma – a love charm or potion, believed to make someone fall in love or become
attracted to you.
5.​ Orasyon – magical prayer often whispered by albularyos or those with lihim na
karunungan (secret knowledge).

WAYS OF DISCOVERING MEANING IN LIFE

Frankl proposed three ways of discovering meaning in life:

1)​ EXPERIENTIAL VALUES
- experiencing something or someone we value; the most important experiential value
could be the love we feel towards others - our family, friends, and other significant
people.
2)​ ATTITUDINAL VALUES
- involves practicing virtues and values such as compassion, courage, a good sense of
humor, humility, etc. For Frankl, the most famous example is achieving meaning through
suffering, where the ultimate goal is self transcendence.
3)​ CREATIVE VALUES
- becoming involved in projects and the creativity and passion involved in art, music,
writing, and work.
Lesson 10: The Political Self
LESSON 10: THE POLITICAL SELF

●​ The Philippines was colonized by Spain for over 300 (333 yrs to be exact) and later
occupied by Japan until 1946. Because of this, our culture, language, and beliefs
have been heavily influenced by foreign powers. This raises the question, as filipinos
do we have our own identity or are we shaped based on our colonial past?

Developing A Filipino Identity/Who is A Filipino?

-​ The Philippines today has only emerged in the 1980s after over three centuries of
colonization of the spaniards. Meanwhile, the Japanese only occurred in 1946. Foreign
culture, beliefs, language, and religion have made a huge dent on our own by setting a
foundation to the contemporary Filipino identity and culture. Filipino have truly developed
an identity of their own? Or are we still living in the shadow of our colonial friends?

CITIZENSHIP
-​ Is a relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes
allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection.

NATIONALISM
-​ is an ideology based on the premise that an individual's loyalty and devotion to one's
country should come above the interests and opinions of other citizens or the interests of
a certain group of citizens.

PATRIOTISM
-​ is an attachment to a homeland. The love and adoration for the place where an
individual is born, brought up, and the nation that place belongs to. These attachments
can be related to ethnic, cultural, political or historical.

Nationalism vs Patriotism
“ pag patriotism, ang saying nila mahal ko ang bansa ko kaya gagawin ko ang kung anong
ikakabuti ng bansa ko, meanwhile ang nationalism mahal ko ang bansa ko, the best ang bansa
ko, hindi niyo matatalo ang bansa ko”

WHO IS FILIPINO?

●​ According to the Philippine 1987 Constitution, Filipino citizens are:​

1.​ Those whose father or mother are citizens of the Philippines.

 2.​ Those born before JANUARY 17, 1973 of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of majority (18 years of age);
3.​ Those who are naturalized in accordance with the law.

FILIPINO VALUES AND TRAITS:

I.​ POSITIVE FILIPINO TRAITS

a.​ The Filipino Hospitality

-​ They always make them feel at home
-​ Offer the best set of plates and food.
-​ They often go as far as being in debt to satisfy them.
-​ Filipinos welcome their guests and tourists as if they are their own brothers and sisters.
b.​ The Respect for Elders
-​ Usually, Filipinos greet their elders by kissing their hand or placing them unto their
foreheads.
-​ And by saying Mano Po, Lolo or Lola.
-​ Saying Ate or Kuya to elder brothers and sisters.
c.​ Close Family Ties
-​ Filipinos maintain a tight relationship with their families regardless of what age.
-​ They are also fond of reunions during birthdays, holidays and fiestas.
d.​ Cheerful Personality
-​ Filipinos have the habit of smiling and laughing a lot.
-​ They smile when they are happy, sad sometimes, angry.
-​ Smiling has been a coping strategy for many Filipinos especially during tough or trying
times and calamities.
e.​ Self-sacrifice
-​ They go out their way to extend help to their friends, families and even to fellow Filipinos.
-​ Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) sacrifice in other countries to provide for their needs.
f.​ Bayanihan
-​ Giving without expecting something in return
-​ always ready to share to people in need

II. Negative Filipino Traits

a.​ Bahala na Attitude

-​ Filipino version of HAKUNA MATATA, meaning NO WORRIES.
-​ The phrase said to have originated from “Bathala Na”, where Bathala means God and
the phrase meaning leaving everything into God’s hands.
-​ Sometimes a POSITIVE TRAIT
-​ Because of the Bahala Na attitude, some Filipinos are content with MEDIOCRITY, and
often exert LESS EFFORTS.
 b.​ Colonial Mentality
-​ Lack of patriotism and attitude where Filipinos favor foreign products more than their
own.
c.​ Mañana Habit
-​ Filipino Term for Procrastination
-​ Doing things that could have been done at present at a later time.
-​ Poor habit of laziness that results in heavier workloads
-​ Laziness is a common problem among Filipinos
-​ As the story of “Juan Tamad”, a famous children's tale.
d.​ Pride
-​ Most Filipinos hold on to their pride as if it is more precious than keeping a good
relationship with family and loved ones.
e.​ Crab Mentality
-​ Toxic Trait among Filipinos where one resents the achievement of another, instead of
feeling happy of that person’s success.
f.​ Filipino Time
-​ Arriving Late at commitment
-​ Punctuality has not been observed

What then are the hallmarks of being a Filipino?

The following are constant reminders of our nationality:

1.​ Proverbs/ salawikain – saying they convey a lesson & reflection.

2.​ Superstitions – Filipinos subscribe to their own set of superstitions & have been passed
down from generation to generation.
3.​ Myths & Legends – stories about how things came about that have sprung out of
people’s imagination
4.​ Heroes & Icons – heroes serves as a reminder of true patriotism & nationalism as they
have sacrificed their lives for the sake of the country
*Icons such as Captain Barbel, Darna (from/part of the Philippine Culture)
Lesson 11: The Digital Self
LESSON 11: THE DIGITAL SELF

These days, more people are becoming active in using the Internet for research, pleasure,
business, communication, and other purposes. Indeed, the internet is of great help for everyone.
On the other hand, people assume different identities while in cyberspace. People act differently
when they are online and offline. We have our real identity and online identity.

DIGITAL SELF
-​ is the version of you that exists online — everything you share, do, or how you appear
on the internet.

Some people maintain one or more online identities that are distinct from their “real world”
selves; others have a single online self that is more or less the same as the one they inhabit in
the real world.

Ex: Having
-​ fake accounts
-​ Alter Ego accounts
-​ Dumo accounts
-​ Stan accounts
-​ Poser accounts

Digital technologies
-​ are electronic tools, systems, devices and resources that generate, store or process
data. Well known examples include social media, online games, multimedia and mobile
phones.

Digital learning
-​ is any type of learning that uses technology.

Social Media
-​ forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and
microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information,
ideas,
personal messages, and other content (such as videos).

Digital Literacy
-​ The capabilities possessed by individuals who are living, learning and working in a digital
society.
-​ Younger generations are more digitally literate than older generations.

Importance of Digital Literacy

-​ Saves time and Provide more connectivity and productivity
Cautions of being on the Internet
1. People are more willing to speak out and misbehave online
2. Authority is minimized (No one is monitoring your social media activities.)

Online Disinhibition – lack of restraint one feels when communicating online.

Positive Online Disinhibition Negative Online Disinhibition

Healthy interactions online Using rude language, harsh criticism, anger,

hatred and threats.
Speaking about emotions, fears and
wished Pornography, violence and Cyberbullying

Showing kindness and helping others Threatening, humiliating, spreading

rumors, making fun of others
Combating loneliness through online
interactions Cyber harassment or exploitation

Finding emotional support

Ways on how to Manage Toxic or Negative Online Disinhibition:

1. BE CAREFUL on what you post online.

2. DO NOT hang with the WRONG crowd online. [Huwag kang sumama sa grupo ng
mga trolls, please lang. #StanWisely.]
3. Consider your emotional state before posting
4. Consider others reaction

TYPES OF SELF – PRESENTATION

1. Self-promotion – trying to show that you are more capable of others so that
others will admire or think highly of you.
2. Ingratiation – wanting people to like you; and always craving for people’s
attention and likes.
3. Exemplification – making other people not good enough. People have the
intention to make others not as good as them. (You make others feel insecure of
themselves instead of encouraging them.)
4. Intimidation – wanting people to be afraid of you.
5. Supplication – appearing as helpless to ask for people’s mercy.
Lesson 12: Learning to be a better
student
LESSON 12: LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT

WHAT IS LEARNING?
-​ is the process of gaining new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or understanding through
study, experience, or practice.
-​ Understanding new ideas, remembering information, or improving abilities.
-​ Through reading, listening, observing, trying, failing, and practicing.
-​ Starts from birth and continues throughout life.

NEUROPLASTICITY
-​ is the ability of the brain to change throughout one’s life.
-​ involves addition of new neurons and RE-ORGANIZATION of information processing
areas.

NEURONS are basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit impulses or messages.

What Neurons are made up of?

●​ Cell body
●​ Dendrites
●​ Axon
Synapse is a junction that helps transmit impulses or messages to other neurons.

CEREBRAL CORTEX
-​ Wrinkled layer of the brain
-​ Process of Neuroplasticity usually happens here.
-​ Responsible for the most SOPHISTICATED information processing in the brain.

The Cortex is divided into four lobes:

1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe

What is cognition?
Cognition is the scientific term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge
and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging,and problem solving.

What is metacognition?
Metacognition is knowledge and understanding of our own cognitive processes
-​ Thinking about thinking (John Flavell)
-​ awareness of one’s thinking and the strategies one uses to learn.-
-​ The root “meta” means “beyond,” so the term refers to “beyond thinking.”
HOW DOES MEMORY WORK?

1.​ SENSORY MEMORY

-​ Takes information from the environment through the human senses (sight, hearing,
touch, taste and smell) stored for a very short time 0.5 seconds to 4 seconds.
 2.​ WORKING MEMORY
-​ Working memory is a system responsible for retaining and using memories. This is what
you are conscious of, or what you are thinking about at any given moment.

3.​ LONG-TERM MEMORY

-​ We hold all our memories here. The goal of learning is to move information here so we
can use it later when we need it. LTM can be explicit and implicit. For memories to
become long term memories, they need to be retrieved regularly. Unlike sensory and
working memory, long term memory capacity is unlimited.

10 MOST COMMON LEARNING STRATEGIES:

1.​ Elaborative Interrogation - generating an explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or
concept is true.
2.​ Self-explanation - explaining how new information is related to known information, or
explaining steps taken during solving.
3.​ Summarization - writing summaries of to-be-learned materials while reading.
4.​ Highlighting/underlining - using keywords and mental imagery to associate verbal
materials.
5.​ Keyword mnemonic - using keywords and mental imagery to associate verbal
materials.
6.​ Imagery for Text - attempting to form mental images of text materials while reading or
listening.
7.​ Rereading - restudying text material again after an initial reading.
8.​ Practice testing - self-testing or taking practice tests over to-be-learned material.
9.​ Distributed practice - is a learning strategy, where practice is broken up into a number
of short sessions - over a longer period of time.
10.​Interleaved practice - implementing a schedule of practice that mixes different kinds of
problems, or a schedule of study that mixes different kinds of material, within a single
study session.
Lesson 13: Setting goals for success
LESSON 13: SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS

GOAL
-​ is something you want to achieve or reach. It gives you direction, purpose, and
motivation.
-​ There are short-term and long term-goals.

SHORT-TERM GOALS
-​ are things you want to achieve soon — usually within days, weeks, or a few months.
-​ They are small steps that help you reach a bigger, long-term goal.
-​ are quick wins — small tasks that you can achieve soon, helping you stay motivated
and move toward bigger dreams.

Example: “makapasa sa exam, makaipon ng 1k this week, matapos ang semester ng walang
bagsak

LONG-TERM GOALS
-​ are goals you plan to achieve over a long period of time — usually several months,
years, or even a lifetime.
-​ They take more time, effort, and planning to accomplish.
-​ are your big dreams — things that take time and commitment to achieve, but bring
lasting rewards when you reach them.

Example: “magiging sikat akong engineer and magkakaroon ng sariling firm”, “magiging
successful akong IT specialist”

SELF EFFICACY
-​ Is a concept by psychologist Albert Bandura.
-​ It means your belief in your ability to succeed in a specific task or situation.
-​ “If you believe you can do it, you’re more likely to try and succeed”.

Bandura said Self-efficacy comes from:

1.​ Mastery of Experience - succeeding in past tasks builds confidence.
2.​ Vicarious Experience - seeing others succeed makes you believe you can too
3.​ Verbal Encouragement - being told “you can do it” can increase belief in yourself
4.​ Emotional state - feeling calm and focused helps improve self-efficacy.

CAROL DWECK’S MINDSET THEORY

Carol Dweck
-​ Introduced the idea that how we think about our abilities affects how we learn and grow.
 -​ She called this mindset - and it comes in two types:
a.​ Growth Mindset
b.​ Fixed Mindset

GROWTH MINDSET
-​ Belief that you can improve through effort, learning, and practice.
-​ “I can get better if I keep trying”
-​ Mistakes are chances to learn
-​ Challenges are exciting and help me grow.

Example: “hindi mataas yung nakuha ko sa exam, magrereview pa ako lalo para makabawi ako”

FIXED MINDSET
-​ Belief that your skills or intelligence are unchangeable — either you have it or you don’t.
-​ “It is what it is”, “I’m not just good at this”
-​ Avoids challenges and fears failure.
-​ Gives up easily when things get hard”.

Example: “ hindi ko na talaga mapapasa to, di ko kaya to”

GROWTH FIXED

Belief Abilities can improve with Abilities are fixed and

effort unchangeable

Response to Failure Learns from mistakes Gives up or feels defeated

View on Effort Efforts lead to success Effort is useless if you’re not

good at it”

Reaction to Challenge Embraces it as a chance to Avoid it out of fear.

grown

LOCKE’S GOAL-SETTING THEORY

EDWIN LOCKE
-​ A psychologist who developed the Goal-setting Theory which says that clear and
challenging goals lead to better performance and greater motivation.

“Setting the right goals helps people work harder, focus more and achieve better results”
According to Locke, goals should be:
1.​ Clear - easy to understand and very specific
2.​ Challenging - a bit difficult but exciting and motivation
3.​ Committed - something you are truly willing to do and finish
4.​ Updated - you get regular feedback to see your progress
5.​ Manageable - if the goal is hard, break it into smaller, doable steps

​
Lesson 14: Taking Charge of One's
Health
LESSON 14: TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S HEALTH

HEALTH
-​ means being physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially well.
-​ It’s not just about not being sick, but about feeling good and functioning well in life.

TYPES:
1.​ Physical Health
-​ How well your body works — includes exercise, nutrition, and rest
2.​ Mental Health
-​ How you think, learn, and handle stress or challenges
3.​ Emotional Health
-​ How you understand and manage your feelings
4.​ Social Health
-​ How well you get along with others and build healthy relationships
5.​ Spiritual Health
-​ Your beliefs, values, or sense of purpose in life

Importance of Health
1.​ Better Quality of Life
2.​ Prevents illnesses
3.​ Clearer thinking
4.​ Stronger relationships
5.​ Personal Growth

STRESS
-​ is your body and mind’s reaction to a challenge, pressure, or demand. It can make you
feel worried, tense, or overwhelmed

ACUTE STRESS - new or short term stress

CHRONIC STRESS - stressor has been around for a longer time.

EUSTRESS - good stress; helps you stay focused or excited

DISTRESS - bad stress; makes you feel anxious, tired, or overwhelmed

STRESSORS
-​ are the things or situations that cause stress.
EXTERNAL STRESSORS

1.​ Major life changes

-​ These changes can be positive, such as a new marriage, a planned pregnancy, a
promotion or a new house. Or they can be negative, such as the death of a loved one or
a divorce.
2.​ Environment
-​ The input from the world around us can be a source of stress. Consider how you react to
sudden noises, such as a barking dog, or how you react to a bright sunlit room or a dark
room.
3.​ Unpredictable Events
-​ Out of the blue, uninvited house guests arrive. Or you discover your rent has gone up or
that your pay has been cut.
4.​ Workplace or School
-​ Common stressors at work include an impossible workload, endless emails, urgent
deadlines and a demanding boss.
5.​ Social Life
-​ Meeting new people can be stressful. Just think about going on a blind date, and you
probably start to sweat. Relationships with family often spawn stress as well. Just think
back to your last fight with your partner or friends.

INTERNAL STRESSORS

1.​ FEARS
-​ Common ones include fear of failure, fear of public speaking and fear of heights.
2.​ UNCERTAINTY & LACK OF CONTROL
-​ Few people enjoy not knowing or not being able to control what might happen.
3.​ BELIEFS
-​ These might be attitudes, opinions or expectations. You may not even think about how
your beliefs shape your experience, but these preset thoughts often set us up for stress.
Consider the expectations you put on yourself to create a perfect holiday celebration or
advance up the career ladder.

HOW DO WE USUALLY RESPOND TO STRESS?

-​ When we feel stress, our mind and body react in different ways — some automatic,
some emotional, and some behavioral.

THREE COMMON TYPE OF STRESS RESPONSES:

1.​ Physical Response
-​ Your body reacts (fight, flight or freeze mode)
2.​ Emotional response
-​ You feel strong emotions (anxious, angry, frustrated or sad)
3.​ Behavioral Response
 -​ Acting or behaving differently (overreacting, avoiding people, shouting, crying)

COPING MECHANISM
-​ is how you deal with stress, problems, or difficult emotions. It’s your way of managing
pressure — whether it’s healthy or unhealthy.

HEALTHY COPING MECHANISMS: UNHEALTHY COPING MECHANISMS:

Talking to someone Shutting people out

Exercise or deep breathing Overeating or starving

Journaling or drawing Drinking alcohol or substance abuse

Time Management Skipping responsibilities

Prayer or Meditation Hurting yourself or others

SOURCES OF COPING AND STRENGTH:

1.​ Family and friends
2.​ Self-awareness
3.​ Faith or spirituality
4.​ Healthy lifestyle
5.​ Positive habits
6.​ Education/ knowledge
7.​ Community or support groups

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF STRESS FOR FILIPINOS:

1.​ “Utang na loob” (Debt of Gratitude)
-​ Creates stress when people feel obligated to give back, even when they are struggling.
2.​ “Hiya” (Shame)
-​ People avoid asking for help or showing weakness to “save face,” even when they’re
suffering.
3.​ “Pakikisama” (getting along with others)
-​ Stress comes from always trying to please others or avoid conflict, even at personal
cost.
4.​ Strong Family Ties
-​ Can be a source of strength, but also of pressure, especially when expectations are too
high.
5.​ Religious Faith
-​ Many Filipinos turn to prayer, faith, or church in times of stress — this can be a strong
coping mechanism.
CHALLENGES FACED BY FILIPINOS IN STRESS MANAGEMENT:
1.​ Mental health stigma
“ mental health here in the ph ay hindi masyado pinapansin unlike sa ibang bansa..”
2.​ Lack of resources
“Aside from hindi pa nga sobrang exposed and liberated ang usapan na mental health dito sa
country natin, kulang din tayo sa psychologist, psychiatrist, sa mga institutions na makakahelp
sa stress management, pero onti onti naman nagiging open about it, tulad sa schools, talagang
nirerequire na ng accreditors ang may licensed guidance councilor, dahil people are finally
caring about the mental health of the students”
3.​ Cultural expectations
“Another example would be, sanay tayong mga pilipino maging resilient, sobrang resilient to the
extent na sinasabi natin sa mga sarili natin na okay ang lahatm kahit hindi naman talaga, so ang
magiging outcome nyan nasusuppress lahat ng stress and emotions natin kaya ang dami sa
pilipinas yung nababaliw, because our the people around us especially our family expects us to
be strong and resilient”

SELF CARE
-​ means doing things that help you stay healthy, balanced, and well — in your body, mind,
and heart.
-​ It’s not selfish, it’s necessary.

TYPES OF SELF-CARE:
1.​ Physical
-​ Sleeping well, eating right, exercising, taking breaks
2.​ Mental
-​ Studying smart, managing time, avoiding overthinking
3.​ Emotional
-​ Talking about feelings, journaling, crying if needed
4.​ Spiritual
-​ Praying, meditating, reflecting on values and purpose
5.​ Social
-​ Spending time with positive people, setting healthy boundaries

SELF-COMPASSION
-​ means being kind to yourself, especially when you make mistakes, feel stressed, or fall
short.
-​ Talk to yourself or treat yourself the way you would for your friend.

“Instead na sinisisi mo sarili mo dahil di ka dean’s lister, mas maganda siguro yung dibale i did
my best, babawi ako next sem”

BENEFITS OF PRACTICING SELF-CARE AND COMPASSION:

1.​ More energy and Focus
-​ You think and feel better when you're well-rested
2.​ Less stress and anxiety
-​ You become more calm and balanced
3.​ Healthier relationships
-​ You treat others better when you're kind to yourself
4.​ Better performance
-​ You learn and grow better with a healthy mind and body.