29-07-2025

Basics of Internet of Things (IoT)

By D. D. Gaikwad

Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

• Internet of Things (IoT) technology has a wide range

of applications and the use of the Internet of Things
is growing so faster.
• It is the networking of physical objects that contain
electronics embedded within their architecture to
communicate and sense interactions amongst each
other or to the external environment.

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Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

The architecture of IoT is divided into 4 different layers i.e. Sensing Layer, Network
Layer, Data processing Layer, and Application Layer.

Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

Sensing Layer:
The sensing layer is the first layer of
the Internet of Things architecture and
is responsible for collecting data from
different sources. This layer

includes sensors and actuators that are

placed in the environment to gather
information about temperature,
humidity, light, sound, and other
physical parameters. Wired or wireless
communication protocols connect these
devices to the network layer.

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Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

Network Layer:
The network layer of an IoT architecture is
responsible for providing communication
and connectivity between devices in the IoT
system. It includes protocols and
technologies that enable devices to connect
and communicate with each other and with
the wider internet.

Examples of network technologies that are

commonly used in IoT
Include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular
networks such as 4G and 5G technology.
Additionally, the network layer may
include gateways and routers that act as
intermediaries between devices and the
wider internet, and may also include
security features such as encryption and
authentication to protect against
unauthorized access.

Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

Data processing Layer:
The data processing layer of IoT architecture
refers to the software and hardware
components that are responsible for collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT
devices. This layer is responsible for receiving
raw data from the devices, processing it, and
making it available for further analysis or
action.

The data processing layer includes a variety of

technologies and tools, such as data
management systems, analytics platforms,
and machine learning algorithms.

These tools are used to extract meaningful

insights from the data and make decisions
based on that data. Example of a technology
used in the data processing layer is a data lake,
which is a centralized repository for storing
raw data from IoT devices.

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Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

Application Layer:
The application layer of IoT architecture is the
topmost layer that interacts directly with the
end-user. It is responsible for providing user-
friendly interfaces and functionalities that
enable users to access and control IoT devices.

This layer includes various software and

applications such as mobile apps, web portals,
and other user interfaces that are designed to
interact with the underlying IoT infrastructure.
It also includes middleware services that allow
different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and share data seamlessly.

The application layer also includes analytics

and processing capabilities that allow data to
be analyzed and transformed into meaningful
insights. This can include machine learning
algorithms, data visualization tools, and other
advanced analytics capabilities.

Advantages of IoT
• Execute multiple tasks at a time like a computer.
• Easiest internet connectivity
• Works on GUI (Graphical User Interface) mode
because of HDMI port.
• Best suited for server-based applications i.e., can
be connected via SSH–Secure Shell-to access the
Rpi command line remotely and file sharing
via FTP–File Transfer Protocol.
• More reliable for software applications.

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Disadvantages of IoT
• Security concerns and potential for hacking or data breaches.
• Privacy issues related to the collection and use of personal data.
• Dependence on technology and potential for system failures.
• Limited standardization and interoperability among devices.
• Complexity and increased maintenance requirements.
• High initial investment costs.
• Limited battery life on some devices.
• Concerns about job displacement due to automation.
• Limited regulation and legal framework for IoT, which can lead to
confusion and uncertainty.

Modern Applications of IoT

• Smart Grids and energy saving
• Smart cities
• Smart homes/Home automation
• Healthcare
• Earthquake detection
• Radiation detection/hazardous gas detection
• Smartphone detection
• Water flow monitoring
• Traffic monitoring
• Smart door lock protection system
• Robots and Drones
• Healthcare and Hospitals, Telemedicine applications
• Biochip Transponders (For animals in farms)
• Heart monitoring implants (Example Pacemaker, ECG real time tracking

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

1. Perception Layer
• This is the first layer of IoT architecture. In the perception layer, a number
of sensors and actuators are used to gather useful information like
temperature, moisture content, intruder detection, sounds, etc.
• The main function of this layer is to get information from surroundings
and to pass data to another layer so that some actions can be done based
on that information.
• The Perception layer consists of physical objects, which are being
monitored/controlled by sensor & actuator devices, having as main
objective the collection of sensor data and command actuation.
• The sensor data is then transmitted to the Middleware layer using the
Network layer,

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

1. Perception Layer
i) Components of the Perception Layer:
• Sensors: Temperature, humidity, motion, light, pressure, and countless other
specialized sensors.
• Actuators: Motors, switches, valves, and other components that execute
physical actions.
• RFID Tags/Readers: For asset tracking and identification.
• Biometric Sensors: Fingerprint, facial recognition, and other human-
interface devices.
• Cameras and Microphones: For visual and audio data collection
(ii) Technologies in the Perception Layer.
• Sensor Fusion: Combining data from multiple sensors for improved accuracy.
• Edge Computing: Preliminary data processing at the device level
• Energy Harvesting: Self-powering sensors using environmental energy.
• Miniaturization: Development of smaller, more efficient sensing devices.

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

• The perception layer addresses the challenge of translating

real-world phenomena into digital data that can be
transmitted, processed, and analyzed.

• This layer must balance accuracy, power consumption, and

cost to provide reliable inputs to the lot system.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

2. Network Layer
• As the name suggests, it is the connecting layer between perception and
middleware layer.
• It gets data from perception layer and passes data to middleware layer
using networking technologies like 3G, 4G, UTMS, Wifi, infrared, etc.
• This is also called communication layer because it is responsible for
communication between perception and middleware layer.
• All the transfer of data done securely keeping the obtained data
confidential.

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

2. Network Layer
• Examples of network layer devices include routers, switches, gateways,
and protocols such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and Zigbee. network layer is critical
in IoT because it enables seamless flow of data between devices, allowing
for real-time monitoring and control.
(1) Components of the Network Layer:
Communication Protocols: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRaWAN, 5G, NB-IoT.
Gateways: Devices that connect sensor networks to the broader internet.
Routers and Switches: Network infrastructure for data routing.
Network Management Systems: Tools for monitoring and managing network
performance.
(ii) Critical Functions of the Network Layer:
Protocol Translation: Converting between different communication protocols.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

2. Network Layer
(ii) Critical Functions of the Network Layer:
Protocol Translation: Converting between different communication protocols.
Data Transmission Security: Encryption and secure transmission of data.
Traffic Management: Prioritizing critical data and managing bandwidth.
Quality of Service (QoS): Ensuring reliable delivery of time-sensitive data. The
network layer must address challenges such as power constraints, range
limitations, interference, and the need for secure, reliable communication.
(iii) The selection of appropriate network technologies depends on factors
including:
• Data volume and frequency.
• Distance requirements.
• Power availability.
• Security needs.
• Cost constraints.

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

3. Middleware Layer
• The data layer is responsible for processing and storing data generated by
IoT devices.
• Middleware Layer has some advanced features like storage, computation,
processing, action taking capabilities.
• It stores all data-set and based on the device address and name it gives
appropriate data to that device.
• It can also take decisions based on calculations done on data-set obtained
from sensors.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

3. Middleware Layer
• The data layer is responsible for processing and storing data generated by IoT
devices.
• Middleware Layer has some advanced features like storage, computation, processing,
action taking capabilities.
• It stores all data-set and based on the device address and name it gives appropriate
data to that device.
• It can also take decisions based on calculations done on data-set obtained from
sensors.

Examples of data layer technologies include databases, cloud storage, and big data
platforms such as Hadoop and Spark data layer is critical in lot because it provides
infrastructure necessary to store and analyze vast amounts of data generated by lot
devices.
(i) Components of the Middleware Layer:
Data Storage Systems: Databases, data lakes, and cloud storage.
Analytics Engines: For processing and deriving insights from collected data.
Service Management: API management, service discovery, and orchestration.
Device Management Platforms: Tools for monitoring and controlling connected devices.

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

3. Middleware Layer
(ii) Critical Functions of the Middleware Layer:
Data Normalization: Converting data from various sources into standardized
formats.
Data Filtering: Removing noise and irrelevant information.
Event Processing: Identifying and responding to significant patterns or events.
Access Control: Managing authentication and authorization for data access.

(iii) The middleware layer often incorporates advanced technologies such as:
Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning: For predictive analytics and anomaly
detection.
Fog/Edge Computing: Distributing processing closer to data sources.
Blockchain: For secure, immutable record-keeping.
Digital Twin Technology: Creating virtual replicas of physical assets for
simulation and testing.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

4. Application Layer
• The application layer manages all application process based on
information obtained from middleware layer.
• This application involves sending emails, activating alarm, security system,
turn on or off a device, smart watch, smart agriculture, etc.
• Examples of application layer technologies include mobile apps, web
apps, and APIs that are used to interact with IoT data. application layer is
critical in loT because it enables end-users to access and interact with data
generated by IoT devices.
• Components of the Application Layer:
• Vertical Applications: Industry-specific solutions (healthcare, agriculture,
manufacturing).
• Horizontal Applications: Cross-industry applications (asset tracking,
environmental monitoring).
• User Interfaces: Dashboards, mobile apps, voice interfaces, and other HMI
(Human-Machine Interface) components.
• Notification Systems: Alerts, reports, and visualization tools.

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

4. Application Layer

(ii) Application Layer Technologies:

Responsive Design: Adapting interfaces to various devices and
screen sizes.
Voice and Gesture Control: Natural interaction methods.
Augmented/Virtual Reality: Enhanced visualization of IoT data.
Integration APIs: Connecting IoT systems with enterprise
applications.

(iii) The application layer must address challenges such as:

Usability: Creating intuitive interfaces for diverse users.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

4. Application Layer
(iii) The application layer must address challenges such as:
• Usability: Creating intuitive interfaces for diverse users.
• Personalization: Tailoring experiences to specific user needs.
• Integration: Connecting with existing business systems.
• Cross-platform Compatibility: Supporting various devices
and operating systems.

5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

5. Business Layer
• The business layer is responsible for defining business logic and
rules that govern behaviour of IoT system.
• This layer includes business processes, rules engines, and analytics
tools that are used to analyze data generated by loT devices and
make informed decisions.
• The success of any device does not depend only on technologies
used in it but also how it is being delivered to its consumers.
Business layer does these tasks for the device.
• It involves making flowcharts, graphs, analysis of results, and how
device can be improved etc.
• Examples of business layer technologies include business
intelligence tools, analytics tools, and rules engines that are used to
analyze and make decisions based on lot data, business layer is
critical in IoT because it enables organizations to leverage data
generated by IoT devices to make informed decisions and improve
business processes.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

5. Business Layer
(i) Components of the Business Layer:
• Business Models: Revenue generation, cost structures, and value propositions.
• IoT Governance: Policies, standards, and compliance management.
• Business Process Integration: Connecting IoT insights with business operations.
• Value Assessment: ROI analysis and performance metrics.

(ii) Critical Functions of the Business Layer:

• Strategic Planning: Long-term IoT investment and development roadmaps.
• Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring adherence to relevant laws and industry standards.
• Privacy Management: Policies for responsible data collection and usage.
• Service Level Management: Defining and monitoring performance requirements.

(iii) The business layer must address challenges including:

• Value Justification: Demonstrating clear ROI for IoT investments.

• Change Management: Adapting organizational processes to leverage loT.
• Risk Management: Identifying and mitigating potential liabilities.
• Ecosystem Development: Building partnerships and developer communities.

7 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

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Major IoT building blocks and layers

These elements make up the backbone of any IoT system upon which effective, multi-layered
architecture can be developed. Most commonly, these layers are:
the perception layer hosting smart things;
the connectivity or transport layer transferring data from the physical layer to the cloud and
vice versa via networks and gateways;
the processing layer employing IoT platforms to accumulate and manage all data streams;
and the application layer delivering solutions like analytics, reporting, and device control to
end users.

• Perception layer: converting analog signals into

digital data and vice versa
• Sensors such as probes, gauges, meters, and
others. They collect physical parameters like
temperature or humidity, turn them into
electrical signals, and send them to the IoT
system. IoT sensors are typically small and
consume little power.
Actuators, translating electrical signals from the
IoT system into physical actions. Actuators are
used in motor controllers, lasers, robotic arms.
Machines and devices connected to sensors and
actuators or having them as integral parts.

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• Perception layer: converting analog signals into

digital data and vice versa
• Sensors such as probes, gauges, meters, and
others. They collect physical parameters like
temperature or humidity, turn them into
electrical signals, and send them to the IoT
system. IoT sensors are typically small and
consume little power.
Actuators, translating electrical signals from the
IoT system into physical actions. Actuators are
used in motor controllers, lasers, robotic arms.
Machines and devices connected to sensors and
actuators or having them as integral parts.

Modern Applications of IoT

• Smart Grids and energy saving
• Smart cities
• Smart homes/Home automation
• Healthcare
• Earthquake detection
• Radiation detection/hazardous gas detection
• Smartphone detection
• Water flow monitoring
• Traffic monitoring
• Smart door lock protection system
• Robots and Drones
• Healthcare and Hospitals, Telemedicine applications
• Biochip Transponders (For animals in farms)
• Heart monitoring implants (Example Pacemaker, ECG real time tracking)

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Physical Design of IoT

• This is determined by the physical design that comprise

of microcontrollers, sensors, and network
infrastructure that collect and share data in the real
world.
• These are the devices that you can actually observe,
touch, and interact with in the physical world.
• The physical design of IoT is responsible for enforcing
the capabilities of IoT into physical spaces.
• Having an understanding of both these aspects is
pivotal because they are intertwined with one another.
• Even if you have the most advanced sensors (physical)
in the world, they will be useful if you do not have the
right data protocols (logical).

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• Logical Design: The Brain of IoT

• The “brain” of such a machine is logical
design.
• Essentially, the logical design of your IoT
environment is the brain of the entire
ecosystem.
• It determines how information flows, how
devices share data, and how this data is stored
and processed in the environment.
• The concept of this logical design then defines
data models, protocols, and various rules that
determine the operation of IoT system.

Logical Design of IoT

IoT communication APIs.
lot functional
blocks.

lot functional blocks.

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• Device: Devices provide sensing, actuation,

monitoring, and control functions to the IoT
ecosystem. Main examples of devices include RFID
tags, sensors, actuators, appliances, gadgets, and
machines. They can be connected to the loT
environment either via a cable or a wireless chip.

• Communication: Manages communication for the lot system. It is

a fundamental aspect of the Internet of Things because this
makes lot devices capable of communicating with one another or
with other systems.
• Services: Services perform the functions of device monitoring,
device control, data publishing, and device discovery. In lot, there
is a management service layer who is dedicated toward managing
these services.

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• Management: Gives functions to govern the lot system. It includes multiple

functions such as tracking and controlling the devices, enforcing security
standards, executing segmentation and data encryption, etc.
• Security: Provides security to the lot system. It performs authentication,
authorization, message and content integrity, and data security functions. It
basically protectoris, authenticatied information from theft, manipulation and
unauthorized access.
• Application: An interface where the users can control and monitor various
aspects of the lot system. It allows the users to view the system status and
analyze the processed data. It provides a user interface and helps users ensure
effective utilization of collected data

IoT Communication Models

• The communication models of IoT are used for
communicating between the system and the server. The types
iot communication models are as follows:
(1) Request-Response Model:
• In this communication model, the client sends requests to the server and the
server responds to their requests.
• After receiving a request, the server decides how to respond by fetching the data,
retrieving resources representation, preparing the response, and then sending the
response to the client.
• The request-response protocol between a client and a server is HTTP

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IoT Communication Models

(ii) Publisher-Subscriber Model:

This model is made up of three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.

Publishers: It is the source of data that sends the data to the topic.
Consumers: They subscribe to the topics.
Brokers: They accept data from publishers and send it to the consumers.

IoT Communication Models

iii) Push-Pull Model:
• This model is made up of data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
• Publishers They publish the message and push it into the queue
• Consumers: They present on the other side and they pull the data out of the
queue
• Queues It helps in decoupling the messages between the producer and consumer.

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IoT Communication Models

IV Exclusive Pair Communication Model
It is a bi-directional model that includes full-duplex communication between
client and server
• The client sends a request and the server keeps the record of all the
connections. In this model, only WebSocket- based communication API is
based.

3. IoT communication API:

There are two types of communication APIs -

(1) REST-based communication APIs

• REST stands for Representational State Transfer.
• It is a set of architectural protocols by which you can design web services and web
APIs. T
• hese web services and APIs focus on a system's resources and how resource states
are addressed and transferred.
• It has a request-response communication model.
• Its architectural constraints are components, connectors and data elements.
• All of them are included within a distributed hypermedia system.

The advantages of REST-based communication APIs include:

1. Flexibility: REST APIs are compatible with a broad range of services and applications.
They can support simple web apps to more comprehensive enterprise systems.
2. Simplicity: The design and implementation process of REST APIs is relatively simple.
This is the reason it has emerged as a go-to choice for developing APIs for web
applications
3. Stateless: Each request in REST API is processed independently of past requests.
This makes it easy to distribute and scale
4. Caching: REST APIs depend on caching to enhance performance and minimize
service load.

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3. IoT communication API:

There are two types of communication APIs -
(1) Web Socket-Based Communication APIs:
• Web Socket API is the bi-directional, full-duplex communication model
between clients and servers.
• It does not require a new connection to set-up for each message between
clients and servers.
• After the connection is set the messages can be sent and received
continuously without any interruption.
• It is best for lot Applications with low latency or high throughput
requirements
Advantages of web socket-based communication APIs:
1. Efficiency:As far as real-time communication is concerned, web socket APIs are
more efficient. They leverage continuous connection to ensure bidirectional
communication
2. Scalability: Since they can provide support to thousands of connections per server,
WebSocket APIs are extremely scalable
3. Minimized Overhead: Relative to Rest APIs, it has fewer overhead since it depends
on a single connection to transmit information.
4. Real-time Communication: Web Socket APIs are ideal for applications that depend
on real-time updates. They are more preferred because they enable communication
between server and client in real-time.

Differences Between Physical and Logical Design of lot

Features Physical design Logical design

Definition The hardware components of The software architecture,
an IoT system. protocols, and data management.
Focus Sensors, actuators, gateways, Data flow, communication
and networks. protocols, security, and
processing.
Example A temperature sensor, Using MQTT to send temperature
ESP8266, and Wi-Fi module. data to a cloud dashboard.
implementation hardware. Involves assembling Involves developing software,
and configuring physical and defining API
managing cloud services

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ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR IOT

• Following are enabling technologies for IoT
(Internet of Things):
1. Wireless Sensor Network.
2. Cloud Computing.
3. Big Data Analytics.
4. Communications Protocols.
5. Embedded System.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR IOT

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
• A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to
monitor the environmental and physica E conditions
• A wireless sensor network consists of end nodes, routers and co-
ordinators. End nodes have several sensor attached to them where the
data is passed to a co-ordinator with the help of routers.
• The co-ordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the
internet.

Example:
• Weather monitoring system.
• Indoor air quality monitoring system.
• Soil moisture monitoring system.
• Surveillance system.
• Health monitoring system.

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ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR IOT

Cloud Computing
• It provides us the means by which we can access applications as
utilities over the internet. Cloud mean something which is present
in remote locations.
• With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from
anywhere like databases, webservers, storage, any device, and any
software over the internet.

A) Characteristics:
1. Broad network access.
2. On demand self-services.
3. Rapid scalability.
4. Measued service
5. Pay-per-use.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR IOT

(B) Cloud Computing Model:
Provides different services, such as:
(i) laaS (Infrastructure as a Service):
(ii) PaaS (Platform as a Service):
(iii) SaaS (Software as a Service):

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(i) laaS (Infrastructure as a Service):

•Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical
machines, virtual machines, servers, networking, storage and data center
space on a pay per use basis.
•Major laas providers are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services
and Microsoft Azure etc.

Example: Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.

(ii) PaaS (Platform as a Service):

• Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to
support the complete life cycle of building and delivering West web
based (cloud) applications - without the cost and complexity of
buying and managing underlying hardware, software provisioning
and hosting
• Computing platforms such as hardware, operating systems and
libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform to develop
applications.
• Example: App Cloud, Google app engine

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(iii) SaaS (Software as a Service):

• It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service.
Instead of installing and maintaining software, you simply access it
via the internet, freeing yourself from complex software and
hardware management.
• SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on
demand software or hosted software.
• SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider's service and they manage
security availability and performance.
• Example: Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.

(C) Cloud Deployment Model:

• Cloud computing supports four basic deployment
models.
• These models differ in the way how the cloud is built
and who are using the resources in the cloud.
• The four cloud deployment models are:
1. Public cloud.
2. Private cloud.
3. Community cloud.
4. Hybrid cloud.

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i) public cloud:
•In a public cloud the resources are shared between several users. Public cloud is generally
maintained by the cloud service provider.
•The management of the resources is taken care by the cloud service provider.

(ii) Private Cloud:

•In a private cloud all the resources are used by a single organization.
•Such organization has the complete control on the cloud and can follow all the necessary
regulations.
•Private cloud offers greater flexibility when compared to the public cloud.

(iii) Community Cloud:

•A community cloud is one whose resources are shared by two or more companies having
shared goals.
•Such clouds are generally used for conducting collaborated research.

(iv) Hybrid Cloud:

•A combination of the previous three clouds is a hybrid cloud. Big companies generally use
hybrid cloud.
•The companies generally store the sensitive data in the private cloud and other non-
sensitive data in the public cloud
These four types of cloud deployments are summarized in the fig. shown.

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Big Data Analytics

• BigData is a collection of data coming from various types of sources. The data is
often huge which cannot be handled by the traditional databases and data
warehouses.
• The BigData is often characterized by six Vs. They are:
• Volume: Refers to the huge volume of data aggregated from various sources.
• Variety: Refers to different types of data. Data can be structured, semi-structured
or unstructured.
• Velocity: Refers to the speed at which the data is generated. Now-a-days the
amount of data available on the Internet per minute is several peta bytes or even
more.
• Veracity: Refers to the degree to which the data can be trusted. If the data
collected is incorrect or he manipulated or wrong values, the analysis of such data
is useless.
• Value: Refers to the business value of the collected. Even though we have huge
amount of data, but it is ne useful for gaining profits in the business, such data is
useless.
• Variability: Refers to the ways in which the big data can be used and formatted.
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of
data whose volume velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store,
control, process and examine the data using traditional databases.

Big Data Analytics

Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital
images, sensors and sales transaction records.
The data analytics framework consists of six steps namely:
1. collection,
2. Cleaning
3. integration,
4. analysis,
5. visualization and
6. alerting.

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Big Data Analytics

Examples:
• Bank transactions
• Data generated by lot systems for location and
tracking of vehicles
• E-commerce and in Big-Basket
• Health and fitness data generated by lot system such
as a fitness bands

Communications Protocols
• They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking
to applications.
• Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network.
• Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication.
• A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when
implemented in software they are a protocol stack.
• They are used in:
1. Data encoding.
2. Addressing schemes.

(A) Several important IoT communication protocols are listed below:

• Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT).
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
• Constrained Application Protocol (COAP).
• Bluetooth.
• Zigbee
• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
• W-R
• Z-Wave

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Embedded Systems
• It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
• It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet Wi-Fi
adapters), input output units (display keyword etc.) and storage devices (flash memory).
• It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
• An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed to
perform a specific task The key components include microcontroller/microprocessor, memory,
networking units. I/O, and storage runs Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

(A) An embedded system has three components. They are:

• Hardware
• Software
• Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application software and provide
mechanism to let the processor run a process as per schedule by following a plan to control the
latencies.
(B) The characteristics of an embedded system are:
• Single-functioned.
• Tightly constrained.
• Reactive and Real time.
• Memory.
• Connected
(C) Embedded systems used in:
Examples –
• 1. Digital camera.
• 2. DVD player, music player.
• 3. Industrial robots.
• 4. Wireless Routers etc.

IOT SYSTEM CHALLENGES FOR DESIGN AND SECURITY

1. Scalability and Interoperability
2. Power Consumption and Battery Life
3. Data Management and Storage

1. Scalability and Interoperability

• IoT networks consist of diverse devices from different manufacturers,
using various protocols and standards.
• Interoperability issues arise when devices struggle to communicate due to
incompatible communication protocols
• Scalability issues occur when adding more devices causes performance
degradation.
(A) Example:
• A smart city project uses multiple IoT sensors (traffic cameras, weather
stations, and parking sensors) from different vendors, but they fail to
communicate effectively due to protocol differences.

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IOT SYSTEM CHALLENGES FOR DESIGN AND SECURITY

B) Case Study: Barcelona Smart City
i) Challenge: The city used lot for smart lighting, traffic monitoring, and waste
management, but devices lacked a unifies communication standard
Solution:
• Implemented cloud-based IoT architecture to integrate all devices.
• Used standardized protocols like MQTT and COAP,
(ii) Counter measures:
• Use open Iot standards (MQTT, COAP, HTTP) for device communication.
• Implement lot gateways to bridge different protocols.
• Use cloud-based platforms (AWS IoT, Microsoft Azure loT) for seamless
integration.

IOT SYSTEM CHALLENGES FOR DESIGN AND SECURITY

2. Power Consumption and Battery Life
• Many loT devices operate in remote locations with limited access to
power sources.
• Continuous data transmission and high-power consumption shorten
device lifespan.
Example:
(1) Agricultural IoT sensors deployed in fields for soil monitoring require
frequent battery replacements, increasing operational costs.
(ii) Case Study: Smart Agriculture in the Netherlands
• Challenge: IoT soil moisture sensors required frequent battery changes,
making maintenance difficult.
• Solution: Used solar-powered sensors and low-power communication
protocols (LoRaWAN).
• countermeasures:
• Use Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN) like LoRaWAN, NB-IoT.
• Implement energy-efficient microcontrollers (ARM Cortex-M processors).
• Use energy harvesting techniques (solar, kinetic energy).
•

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IOT SYSTEM CHALLENGES FOR DESIGN AND SECURITY

3. Data Management and Storage
• lot devices generate large volumes of real-time data, requiring efficient
storage and processing.
• Cloud storage costs increase as data volume grows.
(1) Example Healthcare IoT devices continuously monitor patients,
generating massive datasets that require efficient storage.
(ii) Case Study: Mayo Clinic - IoT in Healthcare
Challenge: Mayo Clinic's lot-based real-time patient monitoring system faced
storage challenges due to high-frequency health data collection
Solution:
• Edge computing was implemented to process data locally, reducing
unnecessary cloud storage.
Countermeasures:
• Use Edge Computing to process data near the source.
• Store only relevant data in the cloud, reducing costs
• Implement Al-driven data compression techniques.

LATENCY AND NETWORK CONNECTIVITY

• Some lot applications (for example, autonomous vehicles,
industrial automation) require low latency for real-time
decision-making.
• Limited network connectivity in remote areas affects IoT
performance.
Example:
• Self-driving cars require ultra-low latency to process data
from LiDAR, cameras, and sensors for real-time navigation
• Case Study: Tesla Autopilot System
• Challenge: Delays in vehicle-to-cloud communication affected
real-time decision-making.

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LATENCY AND NETWORK CONNECTIVITY

Solution:
• Used Edge Al processing within the vehicle for real-time
decisions.
Counter measures:
• Use 5G and Edge Computing for real-time processing.
• Implement redundant network connections (Wi-Fi, cellular,
satellite).
• Optimize data transmission using fog computing

IOT SECURITY CHALLENGES

A) Weak Authentication and Unauthorized Access
• Many lot devices use default or weak passwords, making them vulnerable to
hacking.
• Lack of secure authentication mechanisms increases the risk of unauthorized
access.

(1) Example: Mirai Botnet Attack (2016) exploited weak passwords in lot devices to
create a massive botnet.

(ii) Case Study: Mirai Botnet Attack

Impact: Millions of lot devices were hacked, leading to internet outages worldwide.
Vulnerability: Devices had default usernames and passwords

Solution:
• Enforced strong password policies and automatic firmware updates.
• Countermeasures:
• Use multi-factor authentication (MFA) for lot devices.
• Implement device identity management using blockchain.
• Enforce automatic password updates in IoT firmware

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IOT SECURITY CHALLENGES

B) Data Privacy and Encryption
• IoT devices collect sensitive data (for example, health records, financial data) that must be
protected from cyber threats.
• Lack of encryption exposes data to cyberattacks.
Example:
• Google Nest security breach: Hackers accessed home security cameras due to weak
encryption.
Case Study: Healthcare IoT Security Risks (UK NHS Hospital)
Challenge:
• IoT-based patient monitoring system was compromised due to unencrypted data
transmission.
Solution:
• Implemented end-to-end encryption and secure cloud storage.
Counter measures:
• Use AES-256 encryption for data transmission.
• Implement end-to-end encryption (E2EE) between IoT devices and cloud.
• Use secure tunnelling protocols like TLS/SSL

IOT SECURITY CHALLENGES

C) Malware and Ransomware Attacks
• IoT devices can be infected with malware that disrupts functionality or demands a
ransom payment.

(1) Example:
• Stuxnet Worm (2010): Targeted industrial IoT systems in nuclear plants.

(ii) Case Study: WannaCry Ransomware in IoT Systems

Impact:
• Ransomware locked smart hospital IoT devices, demanding payment.

Solution:
• Enforced regular security updates and data backups.

Counter measures:
• Use Intrusion detection systems (IDS) for lot networks.
• Regularly update firmware and security patches.
• Implement Al-driven threat detection to identify malware patterns.

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IOT SECURITY CHALLENGES

D) Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks
• lot devices can be overloaded with malicious requests, causing service failures.

(1) Example:
• DDoS Attack on Dyn (2016): loT devices were hijacked, taking down major websites
(Twitter, Netflix).

(ii) Case Study: DDoS Attack on IoT Cameras

Challenge:
• Hackers used lot security cameras to launch a botnet attack.

Solution:
• Implemented firewalls and anomaly detection.

Counter measures:
• Use firewalls and rate-limiting for IoT traffic.
• Implement behaviour-based anomaly detection.
• Secure IoT devices using network segmentation

• EXERCISE
(A) Two-Marks Each:

1. Define the Internet of Things (IoT).

2. State any two key characteristics of IoT.
3. What are node devices in IoT physical design?
4. Mention two enabling technologies for IoT.
5. What is the role of sensors in lot systems?
6. List any two applications of lot.
7. What is the function of the network layer in IoT?
8. State two features of cloud computing.
9. Name two types of lot communication models.
10. Give two differences between 4-layer and 5-layer IoT architecture.
11. What is meant by edge computing in loT?
12. Name any two wireless communication protocols used in IoT.
13. Mention two uses of lot in healthcare.
14. What are actuators? Give one example.
15. What is a smart city in context of loT?

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• (B) Three-Marks Each:

•
1. Explain the importance of automation in IoT.
• 2. Describe the Publisher-Subscriber model in IoT communication.
• 3. Explain the role of embedded systems in IoT.
• 4. List any three layers of 5-layer IoT architecture with their functions.
• 5. What is the significance of cloud computing in IoT systems?
• 6. Write a short note on Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN).
• 7. Differentiate between physical and logical design of IoT
• 8. What is big data analytics in IoT? Mention any two advantages.
• 9. Describe the Request-Response model in IoT communication.
• 10. What is the importance of security layer in IoT architecture?
• 11. Explain the characteristics of IoT with examples (any 3).
• 12. List any three types of consumer IoT systems with examples.
• 13. Describe the function of the middleware layer in 5-layer IoT.
• 14. What challenges are faced in managing IoT device power
consumption?
• 15. Explain the role of data processing layer in IoT architecture.

• (C) Four-Marks Each: (D) Six-Marks Each:

• 1. Explain any four enabling technologies for IoT. 1. Explain 5-layer IoT architecture with a diagram and
• 2. Discuss the evolution and history of IoT (key functions.
milestones).
• 3. Describe the lot communication APIs with 2. Compare and contrast 4-layer, 5-layer, and 7-layer IoT
examples. architectures.
• 4. Write a short note on IoT security challenges. 3. Discuss physical and logical designs of IoT in detail.
• 5. Explain any four applications of IoT in different 4. Elaborate on the role and types of IoT systems with
sectors. examples.
• 6. Describe the functions and components of the
perception layer. 5. Explain how IoT is transforming healthcare with case
• 7. Differentiate between HTTP and MQTT protocols studies.
in IoT. 6. Describe in detail the enabling technology: Cloud
• 8. Explain the architecture of IoT using a block Computing.
diagram. 7. Explain the types of communication models used in IoT.
• 9. What is fog computing? How does it reduce
latency? 8. Describe IoT security challenges and suggest best
• 10. Write a note on smart agriculture using IoT. practices.
• 11. Explain cloud deployment models with examples. 9. Write a detailed note on big data analytics and its
• 12. What are the characteristics of big data in IoT? importance in IoT.
• 13. Explain exclusive pair model of IoT 10. Explain in detail how a smart city is implemented using
communication. IoT.
• 14. Describe IoT applications in traffic management. 11. Discuss various IoT protocols and their use cases.
• 15. What are the major challenges in scaling an IoT 12. Explain how embedded systems are essential for IoT
system?
implementation.
13. Describe IoT system design challenges and security
concerns.
14. Explain with a diagram the flow of data in a complete IoT
system.
15. Evaluate how IoT and Al are integrated for future
applications.

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