Sources of Electricity

Electricity is generated from different sources of energy. These are broadly classified into:

 Conventional Sources
 Non-Conventional (Renewable) Sources

1. Conventional Sources of Electricity

Conventional sources are traditional energy sources that are limited and non-renewable. They
have been used for a long time to generate electricity.

Source Description
Coal Burned in thermal power plants to produce steam, which drives turbines.
Natural Gas Used in gas turbines to produce electricity; cleaner than coal.
Petroleum (Oil) Used in diesel or oil-fired power stations.
Nuclear Energy Uranium or thorium is used in nuclear reactors to produce heat for electricity.
Uses water from dams to turn turbines. Considered conventional in many
Hydropower
contexts.

Advantages:

 Established technology and infrastructure.

 High power output capacity.

Disadvantages:

 Non-renewable and depleting.

 Causes pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
 Mining and extraction cause environmental damage.

2. Non-Conventional (Renewable) Sources of Electricity

Non-conventional or renewable sources are naturally replenished and eco-friendly. They are
sustainable for long-term use.

Source Description
Uses photovoltaic (PV) panels or solar thermal systems to convert sunlight into
Solar Energy
electricity.
Wind Energy Wind turbines convert wind kinetic energy into electrical power.
Hydropower Mini and micro hydro plants using running water without large dams.
Biomass Organic material (like crop waste, dung) burned or digested to produce energy.
Geothermal
Uses heat from beneath the Earth’s surface to generate electricity.
Energy
 Source Description
Tidal and
Uses ocean tides and waves to generate power.
Wave Energy

Advantages:

 Renewable and abundant.

 Environmentally friendly (low or zero emissions).
 Reduces dependency on fossil fuels.

Disadvantages:

 High initial setup cost.

 Depends on weather and geographic conditions.
 Requires technology and maintenance.

Effects of Electric Current and Its Applications

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor. When electric current passes
through a material, it produces various effects that can be used in everyday applications and
industries.

Effect What Happens Main Applications

Heating Effect Heat generation in conductors Heaters, irons, fuses
Magnetic Effect Magnetic field produced by current Motors, bells, electromagnets
Electroplating, electrolysis, battery
Chemical Effect Chemical reactions in liquids
charging
Physiological Muscle contraction and nerve
Medical devices, shock hazard
Effect stimulation

Electric current: Continuous flow of electrons in a conductor, in a particular direction is called

electric current. It is represented by I and unit is ampere or A.

Q
Current in a circuit is given by, I=
t

Where, I = Electric current in ampere

Q = charges in coulomb(C)
and t = time in seconds(s)
Meters used to measure current in a circuit are ammeters and multimeters. They are always
connected in series with the circuit.
For measuring low current microAmmeter and milliAmmeter is used while for measuring
medium current Ammeters are used. We have AC Ammeter to measure AC current and DC
Ammeter to measure DC current.

Voltage: Voltage is the measure of electrical pressure between two points of an electrical circuit.
Unit of voltage is volt and symbol is V.

Potential difference: Potential difference between any two points in an electrical circuit is the
difference in electrical pressure between these two points. Electric current tends to circulate from
the point of higher potential (+ve terminal) to the point of lower potential (-ve terminal). Unit of
potential difference is also volt.

Electromotive Force(Emf): Electromotive Force is the force which circulates or tends to circulate
electric current, in an electric circuit. It is measured in volt and its unit symbol is V.

Sources of Emf include chemical cell or battery, Electric generators, solar cells etc.

Voltmeter and multimeters are used to measure voltage, potential difference and Emf. They are always
connected in series with the circuit. We have AC Voltmeter to measure AC voltage and DC
Voltmeter to measure DC voltage.
Resistance: Resistance of a conductor material is defined as the property of the material by the
virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it. It is represented by R and unit is ohm or
Ω. Resistance is measured using ohmmeter, multimeter, LCR meter and megger.

Multimeter Megger

Law of Resistance: Resistance (R) of a conductor is

a. Directly proportional to the length of the conductor (l)

b. Inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor (a) provided the
temperature is maintained constant.
l
i.e., R ∝
a
l
R=ρ at constant temperature
a

ρ(rho) is the constant of proportionality called specific resistance of the material. It is also called
resistivity of the material and unit is ohm meter or Ωm

Electrical Quantities in brief

Quantity Symbol Unit (SI) Formula (if any) Instrument Used
Q
Electric Current I ampere (A) I= Ammeter / Multimeter
t
W
Voltage / Potential Difference V volt (V) V= Voltmeter/ Multimeter
Q
V
Resistance R ohm (Ω) R= Ohmmeter / Multimeter
I
Electromotive Force EMF (E) volt (V) Voltmeter / Multimeter
Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance
provided the temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.

Mathematically:

V
I=
R

Where:

 V = Voltage (volts, V)
 I = Current (amperes, A)
 R = Resistance (ohms, Ω)

Applications of Ohm’s Law:

1. Circuit Analysis: Used to calculate current, voltage, or resistance in electric circuits.

2. Electrical Design: Helps design electrical components like resistors, fuses, and circuit
breakers.
3. Troubleshooting: Technicians use Ohm’s Law to identify faults in electrical equipment.
4. Battery Testing: Determines how much current a battery can deliver.
5. Power Calculation: Combined with power formulas P= VI, it helps in energy
management.

Limitations of Ohm’s Law:

1. Non-Ohmic Materials: It only applies to materials that have a constant resistance (linear
relationship). Devices like diodes and transistors do not obey Ohm’s Law.
2. Temperature Dependence: Resistance can change with temperature. Ohm’s Law
assumes temperature remains constant.
 3. High-Frequency Currents: At high frequencies (e.g., in AC circuits), reactance and
impedance must be considered.
4. Non-Linear Devices: It doesn’t apply when V-I characteristics are non-linear.

Problems

1. Find the resistance of a resistor, which takes 5A when connected to 110V supply.

2. If 10A is to be circulated through a circuit of 100Ω resistance, what voltage is to be

applied to the circuit?

Circuit
A circuit is a complete closed path through which electric current flows. It includes a power
source (like a battery), conductors (like wires), and components (like bulbs or resistors).

Types of Circuit Conditions

1. Open Circuit

 An open circuit is an incomplete path; there is a break or disconnection, so current does

not flow.
 Key Feature: No current flows even if voltage is present.
 Example: A light switch turned OFF, or a broken wire.
2. Short Circuit

 A short circuit occurs when the current bypasses the normal load (like a bulb) through a
low-resistance path. It causes very high current, which can be dangerous.
 Key Feature: Excessive current, often damaging.
 Example: Bare wires touching each other, bypassing a resistor or load.

3. Closed Circuit

 A closed circuit is a complete electrical path in which current flows from the power
source through the load and back to the source.
 Key Feature: Current flows normally.
 Example: A light switch turned ON with a working bulb.

Types of Circuit based on connection

1. Series Circuit
A series circuit is a circuit in which all components are connected end-to-end in a single path for
the current to flow.

 The same current flows through all components.

 The total resistance is the sum of all individual resistances.

 If one component fails, the entire circuit is broken.

Example:
Batteries, resistors, or bulbs connected in a straight line, one after another.
2. Parallel Circuit

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which components are connected across the same voltage
source, creating multiple paths for current.

 The voltage across each branch is the same.

 The total current is the sum of the currents in each branch.
 If one component fails, current can still flow through other branches.
Example:
Lights in a house connected so that each light gets the same voltage and works independently.

3. Series-Parallel Circuit
A series-parallel circuit is a combination of series and parallel circuits. Some components are
connected in series, and others are in parallel.

 These circuits are more complex and common in practical applications.

 The behavior depends on how the components are arranged.
Example:
A circuit where two resistors are in series, and this combination is connected in parallel with
another resistor.