CHAPTER-7

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position and acts in the opposite direction.
Essentially, it's a repetitive back-and-forth movement around a central point, with the force
constantly pulling it back towards that center.
Key characteristics of SHM:
Restoring Force:
A force always present that pushes or pulls the object back towards the equilibrium position.
Proportionality:
The restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium point.
Opposite Direction:
The restoring force always acts in the opposite direction to the displacement.
Sinusoidal Motion:
The displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the object change sinusoidally (like a sine or cosine
wave) over time.
Examples of SHM:
Mass on a spring: A mass attached to a spring oscillating up and down or back and forth.
Simple pendulum: A pendulum swinging with a small angle of displacement.
Vibrating molecules: The microscopic vibrations of atoms and molecule
Waves
waves are studied as a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium or space. They are
categorized into mechanical waves (requiring a medium like sound waves) and electromagnetic
waves (which can travel through a vacuum, like light). Key concepts include wavelength,
frequency, amplitude, and speed, with formulas like v = fλ (speed equals frequency times
wavelength).
Types of Waves:
Mechanical waves: Require a medium (like air, water, or a solid) to travel. Examples include
sound waves and water waves.
Electromagnetic waves: Can travel through a vacuum (empty space) and do not require a
medium. Examples include light, radio waves, and X-rays.
Transverse waves: The disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel (like a wave
on a string).
Longitudinal waves: The disturbance is parallel to the direction of wave travel (like sound waves).
Key Terms:
Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs in a wave.
Frequency (f): The number of waves passing a point per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position.
Speed (v): The distance a wave travels per unit time.
Formula: v = fλ
Wave Characteristics:
Reflection: Bouncing back of a wave when it hits a surface.
Refraction: Bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another.
Diffraction: Spreading of waves as they pass through an opening or around an obstacle.
Interference: Superposition of two or more waves, resulting in either constructive (increased
amplitude) or destructive (decreased amplitude) interference.
Here's a more detailed explanation Wave Characteristics:
1. Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive crests (or troughs) in a wave. It's usually
measured in meters (m).
2. Frequency: The number of wave cycles that pass a given point per second. It's measured in Hertz
(Hz), where 1 Hz equals one wave per second.
3. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a wave from its undisturbed position (rest position).
It's related to the wave's energy, with larger amplitudes indicating more energy.
4. Period: The time it takes for one complete wave cycle to pass a point. It's the reciprocal of
frequency (Period = 1/frequency).
5. Speed: The speed at which the wave propagates through a medium. It's related to wavelength
and frequency by the equation: Speed = Wavelength x Frequency.
6. Reflection: When a wave encounters a barrier and bounces back.
7. Refraction: When a wave changes direction as it passes from one medium to another.
8. Diffraction: When a wave bends around obstacles or spreads out when passing through narrow
openings.
9. Mechanical Waves: These waves require a medium (like air, water, or a solid) to travel.
Examples include sound waves and water waves.
10. Electromagnetic Waves: These waves can travel through a vacuum (empty space) and don't
require a medium. Examples include light waves and radio waves.
11. Transverse Waves: The particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular (at right angles) to the
direction the wave travels.
12. Longitudinal Waves: The particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction the wave
travels. Sound waves are a common example.
Sound waves
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that travel through a medium by creating
compressions and rarefactions (regions of high and low pressure). These waves are characterized
by properties like wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed, and are classified as audible,
infrasonic, or ultrasonic based on their frequency range.
Key aspects of sound waves:
Longitudinal Waves:
Sound waves are longitudinal, meaning the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction
of wave propagation.
Medium Dependence:
Sound waves require a medium (like air, water, or solids) to travel. They cannot travel through a
vacuum.
Compression and Rarefaction:
Sound waves create regions of high pressure (compressions) and low pressure (rarefactions) as
they move through the medium.

Characteristics:
Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
Frequency: The number of compressions or rarefactions passing a point per second, perceived as
pitch.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of particles from their rest position, perceived as
loudness or volume.
Speed: Determined by the properties of the medium.

Types of Sound Waves:

Audible Sound: Sound waves within the frequency range that humans can hear (typically 20 Hz
to 20,000 Hz).
Infrasonic Sound: Sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz, inaudible to humans.
Ultrasonic Sound: Sound waves with frequencies above 20,000 Hz, also inaudible to humans.
Reflection of Sound: Sound waves can be reflected when they strike a surface. The angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Speed of Sound: The speed of sound varies depending on the medium, temperature, and humidity.
Applications: Sound waves have various applications, including sonar, ultrasound imaging, and
musical instruments.

ECHO
An echo is the reflection of sound waves off a surface, creating a repetition of the original sound.
To hear a distinct echo, the reflecting surface must be at least 17.2 meters away from the sound
source, and the time difference between the original sound and the reflected sound (echo) must be
at least 0.1 seconds. Echoes are produced when sound waves bounce off hard, smooth surfaces
like walls, cliffs, or mountains.
Variation of velocity of sound
The velocity of sound, which is how fast sound waves travel, depends on the properties of the
medium it's traveling through. Generally, sound travels fastest in solids, then liquids, and slowest
in gases. Key factors affecting the speed of sound include the medium's temperature, density, and
elasticity.
Factors Influencing Speed of Sound:
1. Medium (State of Matter):
Solids: Sound travels fastest in solids because the particles are closely packed, allowing for
efficient transfer of vibrations.
Liquids: Sound travels slower in liquids than solids because the particles are less closely packed.
Gases: Sound travels slowest in gases because the particles are widely spaced.
2. Temperature:
Sound travels faster at higher temperatures. Increased temperature means particles have more
kinetic energy and vibrate faster, leading to quicker sound transmission.
3. Density:
Generally, sound travels slower in denser mediums because greater inertia of the particles makes
them less responsive to the vibrations.
However, in gases, the relationship between density and speed is more complex, as other factors
like temperature become more significant.
4. Elasticity:
Elasticity refers to a medium's ability to return to its original shape after being deformed.
Sound travels faster in more elastic mediums because they can transmit vibrations more quickly.
 CHAPTER-8
Nature of light
light has a dual nature: it behaves as both a wave and a particle. It's a form of electromagnetic
radiation that can travel through a vacuum and exhibits properties like reflection, refraction,
diffraction, and interference. Understanding light's nature is crucial for explaining various
phenomena like the formation of rainbows and the way we see things.
1. Wave Nature of Light:
Light can be described as an electromagnetic wave, meaning it doesn't need a medium to travel
and can propagate through a vacuum.
The wave nature of light is demonstrated by phenomena like diffraction (bending of light around
obstacles) and interference (superposition of light waves).
Light waves are characterized by their wavelength and frequency, which are related by the
equation c = λν (where c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength, and ν is the frequency).
2. Particle Nature of Light:
❖ Light can also be thought of as a stream of tiny energy packets called photons.
❖ The particle nature of light helps explain phenomena like the photoelectric effect, where light
can eject electrons from a material.
❖ While the wave theory was initially favored, the particle theory is necessary to explain certain
aspects of light's behavior.
3. Key Properties of Light:
Rectilinear Propagation: Light travels in straight lines in a homogeneous medium.
Reflection: Light bounces off surfaces, following specific laws.
Refraction: Light bends when passing from one medium to another (e.g., from air to water).
Diffraction: Light bends around obstacles or spreads out when passing through narrow openings.
Interference: Light waves can combine, creating patterns of constructive and destructive
interference.
Dispersion: White light can be separated into its constituent colors when passing through a prism.
4. Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Visible light is just a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes a wide range of
wavelengths, from gamma rays to radio waves.
Different wavelengths of light correspond to different colors.
Reflection of Light
Reflection of light is when light rays bounce off a surface and return to the same medium. Imagine
throwing a ball at a wall; it bounces back. Light does something similar when it hits a reflecting
surface like a mirror.
Key Concepts:
Incident Ray: The ray of light that strikes the surface.
Reflected Ray: The ray of light that bounces back from the surface.
Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray hits.
Angle of Incidence (i): The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
Angle of Reflection (r): The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection (∠i = ∠r).
Also, the incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane.
Types of Reflection:
Regular (Specular) Reflection:
Occurs when light is reflected from a smooth, shiny surface like a mirror, resulting in a clear image.
Irregular (Diffuse) Reflection:
Occurs when light is reflected from a rough surface, scattering the light rays in many directions.
Examples:
Mirrors: Plane mirrors create virtual, erect, and laterally inverted images.
Water surfaces: Reflect light, allowing us to see reflections of objects.
Shiny floors: Can also reflect light, especially if polished.
Spherical Mirrors:
Definition:Spherical mirrors are curved mirrors whose reflecting surface forms a part of a sphere.
Types:
Concave Mirror: The reflecting surface is curved inwards (like the inside of a spoon).
Convex Mirror: The reflecting surface is curved outwards (like the back of a spoon).
Key Terms:
Center of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Radius of Curvature (R): The distance between the pole and the center of curvature.
Principal Axis: The line passing through the pole and the center of curvature.
Pole (P): The center of the spherical mirror's reflecting surface.
Focal Point (F): The point on the principal axis where parallel rays converge (concave mirror) or
appear to diverge (convex mirror) after reflection.
Focal Length (f): The distance between the pole and the focal point.
Image Formation:
Concave Mirror: Can form both real (inverted, can be projected on a screen) and virtual (upright,
cannot be projected) images, depending on the object's position.
Convex Mirror: Always forms virtual, upright, and diminished (smaller than the object) images.
Mirror Formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u: {f is the focal length. v is the image distance from the pole. u is
the object distance from the pole.}
Magnification (m): m = -v/u: [m is the magnification.]
A positive magnification indicates an upright image, and a negative magnification indicates an
inverted image. The magnitude of m indicates how much larger or smaller the image is compared
to the object.