Logic in CS Autumn 2025
Problem Sheet 3
S. Krishna
1. Using resolution, show that P1 ∧ P2 ∧ P3 is a consequence of
F := (¬P1 ∨ P2 ) ∧ (¬P2 ∨ P3 ) ∧ (P1 ∨ ¬P3 ) ∧ (P1 ∨ P2 ∨ P3 )
2. We have discussed in class that the validity of a CNF can be determined in polynomial time
(How? ). Suppose you are provided with an algorithm, CNF-VAL, which takes a CNF formula
as input and returns whether the formula is valid or not, in polynomial time. We claim to use
CNF-VAL to check the satisfiability of any CNF formula as follows: First, we run CNF-VAL
on the given CNF formula. If the output is VALID, we conclude that the formula is SAT. If
not, we negate the formula, convert it into CNF, and run CNF-VAL again. If the output is
VALID on the negated formula, we conclude the original formula is UNSAT; otherwise, it is SAT.
Given that CNF-VAL operates in polynomial time, we claim that the satisfiability of any CNF
formula can also be determined in polynomial time using the above procedure.
Is this reasoning correct? (Note: For this question, we do not consider the empty CNF.)
3. From any CNF formula φ, is it possible to compute in polynomial time an equisatisfiable
formula ψ1 ∧ ψ2 where ψ1 is a Horn formula and ψ2 is a 2-CNF formula?
4. Let F and G be two sets of formulae. We say F ≡ G iff for any assignment α, α |= F iff
α |= G (α |= F iff α |= Fi for every Fi ∈ F). Prove or disprove: For any F and G, F ≡ G iff
(a) For each G ∈ G, there exists F ∈ F such that G |= F , and
(b) For each F ∈ F, there exists G ∈ G such that F |= G,
5. A set of sentences F is said to be closed under conjunction if for any F and G in F, F ∧ G
is also in F. Suppose F is closed under conjunction and is inconsistent (F ⊢ ⊥). Prove that
for any G ∈ F, there exists F ∈ F such that {F } ⊢ ¬G.
6. Define Positive resolution as a restriction of ordinary resolution as follows: derive a resolvent
from clauses C1 and C2 only if C1 is a positive clause, i.e., it consists only of positive literals.
Prove or disprove : If F is an unsatisfiable CNF formula then one can derive the empty clause
from F using only positive resolution.
7. Show that there is a polynomial-time algorithm to decide satisfiability of those CNF formulas
F in which each propositional variable occurs at most twice. Justify your answer. (Note that
this question is not the same as 2-SAT which you did in last tutorial.)
1
8. Say that a set Σ1 of wffs is equivalent to a set Σ2 of wffs iff for any wff α, we have Σ1 |= α
iff Σ2 |= α. A set Σ is independent iff no member of Σ is tautologically implied by the
remaining members in Σ. Show that a finite set of wffs has an independent equivalent subset
by describing an algorithm to compute this independent equivalent subset. Prove that your
algorithm returns a subset that is independent and equivalent.
9. Consider the parity function, PARITY : {0, 1}n → {0, 1}, where PARITY evaluates to 1 iff an
odd number of inputs is 1. In all of the CNFs below, we assume that each clause contains
any variable at most once, i.e. no clause contains expressions of the form p ∧ ¬p or p ∨ ¬p.
Furthermore, all clauses are assumed to be distinct.
(a) Prove that any CNF representation of PARITY must have n literals (from distinct vari-
ables) in every clause.
(b) Prove that any CNF representation of PARITY must have at least 2n−1 clauses.
