REPORT ON IN-PLANT TRAINING AT

KUDANKULAM NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

ATHUL M
( COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING TRIVANDRUM )
Under the supervision of
MR. EMARAJ.G, TO/F
Mr. PAPPU KUMAR GAMI, SO/D
Mr. ADITYA SHRIVASTAVA, SO/C
II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to all the individuals who have
contributed to the successful completion of this training program at the Koodankulam Nuclear
Power Plant.

First and foremost, I extend my heartfelt thanks to the management and staff of the Koodankulam
Nuclear Power Plant for providing me with the opportunity to undergo training at their esteemed
facility. I am grateful for the knowledge, guidance, and support extended by Shri. Emaraj,
Technical officer/F, engineer in charge of the construction of civil works of KKNPP-5&6, Shri.
Pappu Kumar Gami, Scientific Officer/D and Shri. Aditya Shrivastava, Scientific Officer/C.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the Training Centre ( NTC ) and Shri. Aditya
Shrivastava for their tireless efforts in organizing and conducting the training sessions. Their
dedication and commitment to imparting knowledge and ensuring my understanding of the complex
concepts related to nuclear power generation have been invaluable.

I am indebted to their patience and willingness to address my queries and concerns throughout the
training period. Their expertise and enthusiasm have been instrumental in making this training
experience both informative and engaging.

Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the support and encouragement provided by my

academic institution, the College of Engineering Trivandrum, Kerala for granting me the
opportunity to participate in this training program.

I am forever indebted to Ms S.Rajam, AG-3 ( HR ) for her kind gestures of finding me a serene
and calm place to stay during the course of the program and also for providing me with medicines
and food during my illness.

Last but not least, I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my family and friends for their unwavering
support and encouragement throughout this endeavour. Their belief in my abilities and their
constant motivation has been vital in helping me complete this report.

I am deeply grateful to all the individuals and organizations mentioned above for their contributions
to this report. Without their support, this training experience and the subsequent report would not
have been possible.

I
 CONTENTS

Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1 Introduction 1

2 Nuclear energy 2

3 Benefits of Nuclear Power 3

4 Working of a Nuclear Power Station 4

5 Types of Nuclear Reactors 5

6 Type of Nuclear reactor used at Koodankulam 6

7 Safety features at Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant 7

8 Components of KKPP 9

8.1 Main Plant Structures 10

8.2 Hydro - Technical Structures 12

9 Sub - Soil Investigation 16

10 Selection of Site 17

11 Pre - Stressing 18

12 Specialized Materials and Works 20

13 Scaffolding and Formwork 21

14 Special Concretes Employed 23

14.1 Heavy Concrete 23

14.2 Corundum Concrete 23

14.3 Light Weight Concrete 24

14.4 Serpentine Concrete 24

14.5 Self Compacting Concrete 25

15 Tender and Contract 26

16 Conclusion 27

II
 INTRODUCTION

The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project is an Indo-Russian joint venture aimed at boosting India's
energy production through nuclear power. Located in the Tirunelveli district of the southern Indian
state of Tamil Nadu, the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project is one of the largest nuclear power
plants in India. The project has been in the works since the late 1980s, but construction was delayed
due to various factors such as technical and financial issues, as well as public protests against
nuclear power.

The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project is a significant milestone for India's nuclear energy
program, as it marks the country's first use of light-water reactors. The reactors are designed to
operate for up to 60 years and are equipped with advanced safety features, including passive cooling
systems that can function even in the event of a power outage.

The project's joint venture partnership between India and Russia has been instrumental in ensuring
the successful implementation of the project. The Russian company, Rosatom, has provided
technical expertise and equipment for the project, while the Nuclear Power Corporation of India
Limited (NPCIL) has overseen the project's implementation and operation.

The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project has faced its fair share of challenges, including delays and
protests. However, it is a critical component of India's energy security strategy and has the potential
to contribute significantly to the country's power needs. With four more reactors under construction,
the project is expected to further boost India's energy production capacity and pave the way for
increased adoption of nuclear power in the country.

Kudankulam nuclear power project consists of a 2 x 1000 MWe “ water cooled water moderated
energy reactor ” called VVER- Voda Voda Energy Reactor type, which falls under the category of
pressurized water reactor ( PWR ) and four more such reactors are under construction. Once
commissioned with all the reactors working at their warranted limit, it could produce about
6000MWe.
1
 NUCLEAR ENERGY

Atom is the basic unit of matter and it has a dense central part known as the nucleus. The nucleus
contains positively charged particles and neutral particles. The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged particles. All stable atoms of a single element have the same number of protons
or electrons, but within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, such atoms that have
different atomic mass numbers but the same atomic number are known as isotopes of the element.
Naturally, some isotopes are stable and some are not, unstable isotopes by radioactive decay
transform into stable isotopes of different elements after giving up Beta or Alpha particles along
with electronic waves.

Few unstable isotopes of uranium or plutonium undergo fission transformations with the release of
a huge amount of energy when bombarded with neutrons. This huge amount of energy that is
released or comes out of the nucleus of an atom is generally known as nuclear energy. The huge
energy is part of the energy that is keeping the protons and neutrons bound together in the nucleus
of an atom known as the binding energy.

The process of splitting an atom into two or more fragments is known as fission. Isotopes which
readily undergo fission are called fissile isotopes. Fissile isotopes namely 92U233, 92U235 and 94Pu239
atoms undergo fission when their nucleus is bombarded or hit by a neutron. Heat energy and two or
three neutrons are released during fission. If these neutrons meet other fissile arms, they will cause
further fission and the process would continue. This process is called a chain reaction. Uranium
containing up to 4% of the isotope 92U235 is the most common enriched nuclear fuel used in nuclear
power plants.

2
 BENEFITS OF NUCLEAR POWER

Nuclear power plants offer several benefits that contribute to their importance in the energy needs
of many countries. Here are some key benefits of nuclear power plants:

• Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power plants produce electricity without emitting
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), which contribute to climate change. This makes
nuclear power a valuable tool for reducing carbon emissions and combating global warming.

• High Energy Density: Nuclear energy has a high energy density, meaning a small amount of
nuclear fuel can produce a significant amount of electricity. This efficiency makes nuclear power
plants capable of generating large amounts of electricity to meet the demand of cities, regions, or
even entire countries.

• Baseload Power Generation: Nuclear power provides a stable and reliable source of baseload
electricity. Unlike some renewable energy sources that depend on weather conditions, nuclear
power plants can operate continuously, supplying a consistent and predictable electricity output.

• Energy Security and Independence: Nuclear power reduces dependence on imported fossil
fuels for electricity generation. Countries with nuclear power plants can diversify their energy
sources, enhance energy security, and reduce vulnerability to price fluctuations and geopolitical
tensions associated with fossil fuel imports.

• Fuel Availability and Efficiency: Uranium, the primary fuel for nuclear reactors, is abundant
and widely available in many parts of the world. Additionally, nuclear power plants are highly
efficient in utilizing nuclear fuel, as a small amount can produce large amounts of energy.

• Job Creation and Economic Benefits: The construction, operation, and maintenance of nuclear
power plants create a significant number of jobs in various sectors, including engineering,
manufacturing, construction, and operations. Nuclear power plants can also stimulate local
economies and provide a stable source of revenue for host communities.

• Technological Innovation: Nuclear power has driven technological advancements in various

fields, including reactor design, materials science, waste management, and safety systems. These
innovations can have positive spillover effects and contribute to technological progress in other
industries.

• Continuous Power Supply: Nuclear power plants can operate for extended periods without
interruption, providing a continuous and reliable power supply. This stability is particularly
important for critical infrastructure, such as hospitals, data centres, and essential services that
require uninterrupted electricity.

3
 WORKING IN A NUCLEAR POWER STATION

A nuclear power station operates in the same way as a thermal power station with one difference,
i.e., the source of heat, while heat is produced in a thermal plant by burning fuels such as coal,
natural gas or oil inside the boiler, but the heat in the nuclear power plant is produced by the fission
chain reaction in the nuclear fuel placed inside the reactor.

Nuclear fuel in the form of fuel assemblies is placed in the reactor. Fission of the fuel produces heat,
water is circulated through the reactor by a coolant circulating pump. The circulating water called
coolant removes the heat from the reactor core and gets heated. The hot coolant enters the steam
generator through a large number of small tubes to heat the water circulating in another circuit
called the secondary circuit, producing steam.

Steam produced in the steam generator is sent to the turbine, which spins the generator to produce
electricity. The exhaust steam is cooled and converted to water in the condenser and pumped back
into the steam generator. Natural water from the sea, river or lake etc is used as a cooling medium in
the condenser. The water returned to sea, river or lake after cooling the condenser does not contain
any radioactivity.

4
 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

There are several types of nuclear reactors, each with its own design and operating principles. Here
are some of the most common types:

• Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR): PWRs are the most widely used type of nuclear reactor.
They use enriched uranium fuel and water as both coolant and moderator. The water is kept
under high pressure to prevent boiling. PWRs are known for their safety features and are
commonly used in commercial power plants.

• Boiling Water Reactor (BWR): BWRs also use enriched uranium fuel, but they allow the
coolant water to boil, producing steam directly to drive the turbine. The steam is then condensed
back into water and reused. BWRs are simpler in design compared to PWRs but have similar
safety features.

• Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR): PHWRs use natural uranium as fuel and heavy
water (deuterium oxide) as the moderator and coolant. They are known for their flexibility in
using different types of fuel and can operate at lower pressures compared to PWRs and BWRs.

• Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR): FBRs use fast neutrons to sustain a chain reaction. They can
produce more fissile material (such as plutonium-239) than they consume, making them efficient
in utilizing nuclear fuel. FBRs can help extend the energy potential of uranium resources.
However, they are more complex and have not been widely deployed for commercial power
generation.

• High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR): HTGRs use helium gas as a coolant and
graphite as a moderator. They can operate at higher temperatures than water-cooled reactors,
making them suitable for applications like hydrogen production.

• Molten Salt Reactor (MSR): MSRs use a liquid mixture of salts as both the coolant and fuel.
The fuel is dissolved in the salt, allowing for efficient heat transfer. MSRs have inherent safety
features and can operate at high temperatures. They also have the potential to reduce nuclear
waste and utilize thorium as a fuel source.

• Small Modular Reactor (SMR): SMRs are smaller-scale reactors designed to generate
relatively lower power outputs compared to traditional reactors. They offer advantages such as
enhanced safety features, modular construction, and flexible deployment options. Various
reactor designs, including PWRs, HTGRs, and advanced concepts, can be implemented as
SMRs.

5
 TYPE OF REACTOR USED AT KOODANKULAM NUCLEAR POWER
PLANT

The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu, India employs the VVER-1000 (Water-Water
Energetic Reactor) type of nuclear reactor. VVER-1000 is a pressurized water reactor (PWR)
designed and developed in Russia. It is one of the most widely used reactor types globally.
The key characteristics of the VVER-1000 reactors at Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant are as
follows:

• Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR): The VVER-1000 is a type of PWR where water acts as both
the coolant and moderator. The reactor core generates heat through nuclear fission, and the
pressurized water removes the heat from the core.

• Enriched Uranium Fuel: The VVER-1000 reactors use enriched uranium fuel, typically
uranium-235, which undergoes a controlled chain reaction to produce heat and energy.

• Active Safety Systems: The VVER-1000 reactors incorporate active safety systems that rely on
mechanical and electrical components to ensure safe operation. These systems include
emergency core cooling systems (ECCS), which provide cooling water to the reactor core in
case of accidents or abnormal events.

• Multi-Unit Configuration: The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant currently has two VVER-1000
reactors in operation, and there are plans for additional units. The reactors are designed to
operate in a multi-unit configuration, with each unit having its safety features and redundant
systems.

• Advanced Safety Features: The VVER-1000 reactors at Kudankulam include advanced safety
features to enhance their safety performance. These features may include passive safety systems
that operate without the need for external power supply or human intervention, as well as
measures to mitigate the effects of external hazards such as earthquakes and tsunamis.

6
 SAFETY FEATURES AT KOODANKULAM NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, located in Tamil Nadu, India, has several safety features in place
to ensure the safe operation of its reactors. Here are some of the key safety measures implemented
at the plant:

• Reactor Containment: The reactors at Kudankulam are housed within robust containment
structures designed to withstand external hazards, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and extreme
weather events. These structures are built to prevent the release of radioactive materials in case
of an accident.

• Passive Safety Systems: The reactors at Kudankulam employ passive safety systems that do not
rely on active mechanical or electrical components to operate. These systems utilize natural

phenomena like gravity, natural circulation, and heat conduction to ensure safety even in the
absence of power supply or operator intervention.

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• Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS): ECCS is a crucial safety feature that ensures the
cooling of the reactor core in case of an accident. It comprises redundant and diverse cooling
systems, including the injection of coolant into the core, to remove heat generated during
abnormal events and maintain the core's integrity.

• Multiple Independent Safety Barriers: Kudankulam reactors incorporate multiple barriers to

prevent the release of radioactive materials. These barriers include the fuel cladding, reactor
coolant system, primary containment, and secondary containment, which collectively provide
layers of protection against the escape of radioactive substances.

• Emergency Preparedness and Response: The plant has well-established emergency preparedness
and response plans in coordination with the local authorities. These plans include procedures for
evacuation, emergency communication, and medical support in the unlikely event of a nuclear
incident.

• Regular Safety Assessments: The safety of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant is regularly
assessed and reviewed by independent regulatory bodies, such as the Atomic Energy Regulatory
Board (AERB) in India. Safety inspections, audits, and drills are conducted to ensure
compliance with safety regulations and identify areas for improvement.

8
 COMPONENTS OF KKNPP

Main plant structures :

• Reactor Building
• Reactor auxiliary building and main control room
• Turbine building
• Common buildings

Hydro-technical Structures :

• Pump house
• Intake structures
• Caisson structures
• Breakwater dyke

9
 Main Plant structures

Reactor building: it is the most important part of the nuclear power plant where the actual reaction
takes place.
The construction of these buildings requires they be extremely strong, and are often made of thick,
reinforced concrete or steel walls and roofs. The containment structure of a reactor building must
achieve the following safety functions:
• Confinement of radioactive substances during operation and in the case of an accident
• Protection of the plant against natural disasters and human-induced events
• Radiation shielding during operation and in the event of an accident.

The buildings must be accessible during normal operation, so they are kept at "negative pressure"
meaning that when an operator enters the containment structure, air will flow into the structure
rather than out. Therefore, even in the event of a nuclear release inside the building, an uncontrolled
release into the environment is quite unlikely. The operator can enter through an airlock chamber,
which has two doors to ensure that the interior of the building is never exposed to the outside air.

Reactor auxiliary building: A building at a nuclear power plant, which is frequently located
adjacent to the reactor containment structure, and houses most of the auxiliary and safety systems

10
associated with the reactor, such as radioactive waste systems, chemical and volume control
systems, and emergency cooling water systems.

Turbine building: the purpose of a turbine building is to generate electrical energy by using
mechanical energy. The turbine building is situated next to the reactor building at an absolute
elevation of 8.1m MSL which is taken as a relative elevation of 0m. The turbine building in KKNPP
is constructed on a raft foundation. The thickness of the raft foundation in the turbine building is
1.5m. It consists of one high-pressure turbine and three low-pressure turbines.

11
 Hydro-technical Structures at KKNPP

In the nuclear reactor, the thermal energy is generated by a nuclear fission reaction. This thermal
energy is used to convert water to steam in Steam generators. This steam is used to run the Turbine
to generate electricity. This steam after striking the turbine needs to be cooled which is done using
the Condenser. In the Kudankulam Nuclear power plant, cooling is done by water drawn from the
sea. The water takes up heat from the condenser and is discharged back into the sea. The hydro-
technical structures are designed to cater to the requirement of cooling the water.

The design of the cooling system has been carried out by a design institute named “Gidroproekt
Institute” in Moscow, Russia, detailed mathematical modelling of all variants considering the
aspects of sedimentation transport, littoral drift and thermal pollution was carried out and the most
suitable variant has been selected.

Design details

Kudankulam Nuclear power project is located on the southeastern coast of India on the shores of the
Gulf of Mannar, about 30 Km from Kanyakumari. The shoreline is in the East-West direction at
Kudankulam. The local shoreline is sandy with rock outcrops in the near shoe zone. The tides in the
area are semi-diurnal mixed type with amplitude from 0-1.15m range.

The optimum variant of the cooling water system is selected based on the following factors:

• Providing the best water temperature regime at the intake.

• Preventing sediments from entering the intake structure.
• Exclusion of biomass and fish from entering the intake.
• Shoreline protection against corrosion and accretion.
• Impact on the structures on the environment.
• The simple design of structures and easy erection.
• Easy operation of Mechanical equipment.

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 Description of major structures

1. Offshore structures

Temporary Dyke: It is to facilitate the construction of structures in the sea, a temporary

dye is built which provides a closed enclosure from which the sea water is pumped out and the area
is made dry. The concrete structures are then constructed in this area. Once these structures are
completed, the temporary dyke will be removed and the area will be made open for the water flow.

Breakwater Dyke: This is a rock-fill structure located at a distance of 270m from the shore.
The plan dimensions for the structures at the centre line are approx. 900m x 250m. The sea bed
level is varying from -4m to -12m MSL. The Dyke has a top elevation of 7.5m with side slopes 1:2.
The major components of the breakwater dyke consist of a rock core of size 5 - 1000kg protected by
a secondary armour layer of 1000-3000 kg rock material. The Primary armour layer is made of
concrete tetrapod units of various sizes like 5T, 13T and 20T. The top surface of the dyke has 30T
concrete blocks. The dyke protects the intake structures located at the northern end as well as
facilitates the draw of water at the southern end 1.2 km from the shore through intake pipes
( caisson structures ).

Steel sheet piles are driven using special vibro hammers for a length of about 500m on both arms
through the cross-section of the breakwater dyke into the sea bed which will prevent the intermixing
of hot and cold water.

Intake structures and fish protection facilities: These are located on the northern end of the
breakwater dyke. The intake structures facilitate the smooth drawing of water with the provision to
exclude debris. There is a special and innovative provision of fish protection facility provided for
the first time in India, located after the intake structure. In this, by the movement above ogee weirs
and thus creating a sill effect and by providing a compressed air curtain within the water, an uplift is

13
created with makes the fishes travel in the uppermost water surface and prevents them to enter into
the inlet pipelines at the lower elevation. These fishes are then pushed out into the sea by hydraulic
ejectors. Thus this system provides for the safety of fish species, thereby preserving the aquatic life.

Caisson Structures: These are the concrete cellular structures built inside the dry area provided by
the temporary dyke. They weigh approximately 2900T each, these will be floated by breaking open
the temporary dyke, letting seawater inside and towed by tug boats to the mouth of the breakwater
and sunk in place. There are four Caisson structures.

Sea water inlet pipelines: These are concrete pipes that are 6 in several 4.1m diameter laid below
the sea bed from elevation -11.75m near the intake structures to -13.15m near fore bay structures.
They convey cold water from intake structures to forebay structures by gravity.

Shoreline protection: The design also provides for the shoreline protection structure for about
1500m along the shore.

Bridge: A bridge is provided to connect the breakwater dyke with the shore. This bridge has 15
spans with precast RCC girders.

2. On Shore Structures

Forebay structures: They are trapezoidal-shaped water reservoirs which receive water from
the inlet pipelines. They provide for smooth entry of water with a dead storage capacity and also
with the provision of screens, gates and trash racks to exclude any unwanted material from
seawater. One forebay structure is provided for each unit.

Pump houses: 6 main water pumps are located in these structures for pumping the water to the
condenser in the turbine building and then to discharge channels. Three auxiliary pumps are also
located here for non-essential loads. Each unit has an independent pump house.

(Pump house, Forebay and intake structures)

14
 Pressure pipelines of main cooling water: These convey the cooling water pumped from the main
pump house to the condenser at the turbine building. There are 6 pipelines of 2.2m diameter each
encased in the concrete from the outside.

Discharge channels: The discharge channels are open channel structures which convey hot water
from the condenser outlet up to the discharge point in the sea. The channels are provided up to
-2.5m elevation which is below the lowest water level inside the sea. Syphon wells are provided for
increasing the efficiency of condenser heat transfer to cooling water.

Chlorination Plant: To prevent bio growth, sodium hypochlorite solution is added at the intake
structure to the cooling water. This is manufactured in the chlorination plant located between the
two pump houses.

15
 SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION

Site investigations for nuclear power plants are necessary to determine the geotechnical
characteristics of a site that affect the design, performance and safety of the plant. The site
investigations shall provide the information needed to define local foundation and groundwater
conditions, geotechnical parameters need for engineering analysis and design of foundation and
earthworks. They include bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of the foundation due to
static loads, earthquake response as well as uplift due to water table, stability of excavations and
interactions between neighbouring foundations, foundation design and design and decide o the
methods to improve founding media.

The following are the tests followed :

• Boring in soil
• Rock drilling
• Bore logs
• Pressure meter test
• Permeability test
• Plate load test

Boring in soil: Boring in soil was carried out by using a hydraulic feed rotary cum percussion
drilling machine fit with drill bits. The diameter of the bole in the soil was 150mm. The casing was
used to protect the boreal from side collapse.

Rock drilling: Drilling was executed by rotary coring using a swivel-type double tube core barrel
of diameter 76mm. Tungsten carbide bites were used for drilling in weathered rock strata and
diamond bits were used in hard rock. The casing was used in the unstable portions of the borehole.
Bore logs were maintained.

Bore logs: Bore holes were advanced in rock strata by rock coring technique and samples thus
obtained were indexed and stored in core boxes. These samples were further inspected and logged
by geologists. These Los give information about the type of rock, soil, locations, drilling rate, depth
details of sample collected, SPT value etc.

Plate load test: The plate load was conducted on weathered rock strata at a depth between 2-4m
below ground level, using a 25mm thick square plate of size 45/60cm by the IS 1888. A seating load
of 70gm/cm2 is applied and released after some time. The plate is loaded either through a kentledge
or by the reaction through a truss or a beam. The load is applied in increments of 1/5th of the design
load or 1/10th of the failure load. For each increment of load, four dial gauges are on the plate to
measure the settlement. Next higher load is applied when the rate of settlement of the plate becomes
0.25 mm per hour. The test is simultaneously carried out until failure or to a load two and half times
the design load, whichever is earlier.

16
 SELECTION OF SITE

• The site has hard rock at reasonable depth providing good foundation conditions.
• The site is in seismic zone ll which of associated with low seismic potential.
• There are no active faults in the vicinity.
• The site is not subject to severe cyclonic storms, tidal waves and tsunamis.
• The maximum flood level is determined to be about 6m and plant structures are located above
this level.

• The local shoreline is Sandy with rock outcrops in the nearshore zone. The tides in the area are
semi dismal mixed type with amplitude from 0-1.5m range.
• The cost adjoining the site has adequate depth, facilitating economical length for the intake
structures to draw cool water.
• A large quantity of seawater is available for condenser cooling and dilution of effluents.
• There is no population within the exclusion zone of 2km from the plant. The land is mostly
barren with no b agricultural produce.
Tests conducted on subsoil stratum to evaluate site conditions:

• Boring in soil
• Rock drilling
• Standard penetration test
• Bore log
• Pressure meter test in situ permeability test
• Water percolation test
• Pump out test
• Plates load test
• Trial pits

17
 PRE STRESSING

The fundamental principle of prestressing is to induce compressive forces within a structure to

counteract the tensile stresses that develop under loads. By introducing pre-compression, the
structure becomes more resistant to external forces, minimizing or eliminating tensile stresses. This
technique exploits the inherent characteristics of concrete and steel, utilizing their contrasting
properties to create a highly efficient and robust structural system.

Methods of Prestressing: Prestressing can be achieved through two primary methods: post-
tensioning and pre-tensioning.

Post-tensioning: Post-tensioning involves tensioning high-strength steel tendons after the concrete
has been cast and gained sufficient strength. The tendons, typically in the form of cables or bars, are
positioned within ducts or sheaths and anchored to the structure at the ends. Once the concrete has
reached the desired strength, the tendons are tensioned using hydraulic jacks, generating the
necessary compressive forces within the concrete. Finally, the tendons are anchored, transferring the
prestressing force to the structure.

Pre-tensioning: Pre-tensioning involves tensioning the steel tendons before pouring the concrete. In
this method, the tendons are initially tensioned between abutments or anchorages, and the concrete
is then cast around them. As the concrete hardens and gains strength, the tendons' release of tension
transfers compressive forces to the concrete. Pre-tensioning is commonly used in the production of
precast concrete elements, such as beams and hollow-core slabs, allowing for efficient and
controlled manufacturing processes.

Benefits of Prestressing:

Prestressing offers several significant advantages, making it a preferred technique in many

construction projects:

18
• Increased Structural Strength:

By introducing pre-compression, prestressing improves the load-bearing capacity of concrete

structures. It enables the construction of longer spans and thinner sections, reducing the need for
intermediate supports and allowing for more open and aesthetically pleasing architectural designs.

• Enhanced Durability:

Prestressing mitigates or eliminates tensile stresses in the concrete, minimizing the risk of cracking
and structural failure. This technique improves the long-term durability of structures, reducing
maintenance requirements and increasing their service life.

• Improved Structural Behavior:

Prestressed structures exhibit superior structural behaviour under various loading conditions. They
have reduced deflection and improved resistance to deformation, which is particularly beneficial in
high-rise buildings, bridges, and other critical structures.

• Load Balancing and Crack Control:

Prestressing helps to distribute loads more evenly throughout a structure. By inducing compressive
stresses, it counteracts external forces and minimizes the formation of cracks. This benefit is
especially significant in regions prone to seismic activity, as prestressed structures exhibit improved
resilience against earthquakes.

19
 SPECIALIZED MATERIALS AND WORKS

Waterproofing membrane: The purpose of the waterproofing membrane is to protect the

underground plant structures and basements from water ingress. It is made of SBS ( Styrene
Butadiene Styrene ) modified elastomeric bitumen-based waterproofing membranes. In vertical
surfaces, waterproofing membranes are protected by providing polyethene film.

Micro silica: silica fume, also known as micro silica is an amorphous polymorph of silicon dioxide.
It is ultra-fine powder finer than cement. Micro silica in concrete improves strength and durability
and reduces thermal crack which is caused by heat of cement hydration. Micro silica shall be used
in concrete of grade M50 and above as an additive.

Embedded parts: The embedded parts are just metal elements in a structure attached to provide
support to carry pipes, ducts etc. The embedded parts are made up of carbon steel or stainless steel.
The EP’s are fabricated in the KKNPP fabrication yard as per conventional size and shape.

Water stopper: Water stoppers are pre-manufactured joint fillers used to prevent the transmission of
water through the construction joint. Water stops are mainly used for the waterproofing of below-
grade concrete structures like tunnels, water treatment facilities, water reservoirs, sewage treatment
facilities and marine structures.

Green cutting: it is the roughening of the concrete surface by using high water pressure or air
pressure. Green cutting is necessary where shear strength or impermeability is needed especially in
construction joints.

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 SCAFFOLDING AND FORMWORK

Scaffolding and formwork are crucial components in construction projects, playing essential roles
in providing temporary support, safety, and shape to structures during the construction process.
Let's discuss each of them briefly.

Scaffolding:

Scaffolding refers to the temporary structure erected around a building or structure to facilitate
construction, maintenance, repair, or inspection activities. It provides a safe working platform for
workers and allows them to access different areas at various heights. Scaffolding is typically made
of steel or aluminium and consists of tubes, couplers, boards, and other components. It offers
stability, strength, and versatility in supporting workers, tools, and construction materials.

Key functions and features of scaffolding include:

• Safety: Scaffolding ensures a safe working environment by providing a stable and secure
platform for workers to perform their tasks at various heights. Guardrails, toe boards, and safety
nets are often incorporated to prevent falls and protect workers.

• Access: Scaffolding enables easy access to different parts of a building or structure, allowing
workers to perform tasks efficiently. It provides vertical and horizontal movement, ensuring
workers can reach heights and areas that would otherwise be challenging or inaccessible.

• Flexibility: Scaffolding systems are adaptable and can be adjusted to suit various construction
requirements. They can be assembled, disassembled, and reconfigured to accommodate changes
in project scope or layout.

• Load-bearing capacity: Scaffolding is designed to support the weight of workers, construction

materials, tools, and equipment. It undergoes careful engineering and calculations to ensure it
can withstand the anticipated loads without compromising safety.

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Formwork:

Formwork, also known as shuttering, refers to temporary moulds or structures used to shape and
support freshly poured concrete until it hardens and gains sufficient strength. It provides the desired
shape, dimensions, and surface finish to concrete elements such as walls, columns, beams, and
slabs. Formwork can be made of wood, steel, aluminium, or a combination of these materials,
depending on the project requirements and the complexity of the structure.

Important aspects of formwork include:

• Support and containment: Formwork supports the weight of fresh concrete, preventing sagging
or deformation during the casting and initial curing process. It ensures that the concrete retains
its desired shape and form until it can bear its self-weight.

• Surface finish: Formwork contributes to achieving the desired surface finish of concrete
elements. The inner surface of the formwork can be treated with release agents or lined with
materials such as plywood or steel panels to impart specific textures or finishes to the concrete
surface.
• Reusability: Depending on the type of formwork material and the quality of construction, the
formwork can be reused for multiple casting cycles. Proper maintenance and handling of
formwork can extend its lifespan, resulting in cost savings and reduced waste.

• Accuracy and dimensional control: Formwork ensures the accurate placement of concrete,
maintaining precise dimensions and alignment. It plays a crucial role in achieving the desired
architectural and structural requirements of the final concrete elements.

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 SPECIAL CONCRETES EMPLOYED

• Heavy concrete
• Corundum concrete
• Serpentine concrete
• Lightweight concrete
• Self Consolidating concrete

Heavy concrete: It is also known as high-density concrete or heavyweight concrete, is a specialized

type of concrete that has a higher density and greater weight compared to standard concrete. It is
typically used in applications where increased weight or specific properties are required. The
increased density is achieved by incorporating heavy aggregates or additives into the concrete
mixture. Here are some key aspects and applications of heavy concrete:

• Aggregates: Heavy concrete utilizes dense aggregates, such as iron ore, hematite, magnetite,
barite, or lead, to increase its weight. These aggregates are typically much heavier than
traditional aggregates like sand and gravel. The use of heavy aggregates allows the concrete to
achieve the desired density and weight.

• Density and Weight: Heavy concrete generally has a density of 2,000 to 4,000 kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m³), compared to the typical density of 2,300 kg/m³ for standard concrete. The
increased density results in a higher weight per unit volume, which can be advantageous for
specific applications.

• Radiation Shielding: Heavy concrete is widely used in nuclear power plants, medical facilities,
and other settings that require radiation shielding. The high density of heavy concrete helps
absorb and attenuate radiation, protecting workers and the surrounding environment.

Corundum concrete: Corundum concrete, also known as alumina concrete, is a type of refractory
concrete that contains a high proportion of corundum (aluminium oxide) as its primary aggregate. It
is specifically designed to withstand high temperatures, abrasion, and chemical attack, making it
suitable for demanding industrial applications.
Here are some key aspects and applications of corundum concrete:

• Composition: Corundum concrete consists of a blend of corundum aggregate, refractory cement,

and other additives. The corundum aggregate is typically derived from synthetic corundum or
natural corundum minerals, which have excellent refractory properties.

• High-Temperature Resistance: Corundum concrete exhibits exceptional resistance to high

temperatures. It can withstand temperatures up to 1800°C (3272°F) and maintain its strength and
structural integrity under extreme heat conditions. This makes it ideal for applications in
furnaces, kilns, incinerators, and other heat-intensive industrial processes.

• Abrasion Resistance: The presence of corundum, a highly hard and abrasion-resistant material,
gives corundum concrete excellent resistance to wear and erosion. It is commonly used in
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 industries where materials with high abrasive content, such as coal, minerals, and metals, are
handled. Corundum concrete linings are often applied to chutes, hoppers, cyclones, and other
equipment subjected to severe abrasive conditions.

• Chemical Resistance: Corundum concrete exhibits good resistance to chemical attacks from
acids, alkalis, and other corrosive substances. This makes it suitable for applications in chemical
plants, refineries, and other environments where exposure to aggressive chemicals is a concern.

• Insulating Properties: Corundum concrete can also be formulated with insulating materials to
improve its thermal insulation properties. Insulating corundum concrete is used to line industrial
furnaces, ovens, and kilns, where both high-temperature resistance and thermal insulation are
required.Serpentine concrete: Serpentine concrete has been investigated for its potential use in
nuclear reactors, particularly as a structural material for shielding and containment applications.
Its unique properties make it a suitable candidate for certain areas within a nuclear reactor
environment. Here are some considerations regarding the use of serpentine concrete in nuclear
reactors:

Serpentine Concrete : Due to its high density and composition, serpentine concrete has shown
promising neutron shielding properties. Neutrons are generated during the nuclear fission process,
and effective shielding materials are required to reduce their impact and protect personnel and
equipment. Serpentine concrete can be used as a part of the neutron shielding system within the
reactor to attenuate neutron radiation.

• Gamma Ray Absorption: In addition to neutron shielding, serpentine concrete also offers
effective gamma ray absorption capabilities. Gamma rays are highly energetic electromagnetic
radiation emitted during radioactive decay. Concrete, including serpentine concrete, can
attenuate and absorb gamma rays, helping to protect against radiation exposure.

• Thermal Insulation: Serpentine concrete has lower thermal conductivity compared to

conventional concrete. This thermal insulating property can be beneficial in certain areas of a
nuclear reactor, such as in containment structures, where maintaining temperature stability is
crucial for safety and performance.
• Chemical Resistance: Serpentine concrete exhibits good chemical resistance, which is
advantageous in the harsh environment of a nuclear reactor. It can withstand exposure to various
chemical agents and corrosive substances that may be present during reactor operation.

• Mechanical Strength: The mechanical strength and durability of serpentine concrete make it
suitable for structural applications within a nuclear reactor. It can be used in the construction of
reactor containment structures, walls, and floors, providing structural integrity and stability.

Lightweight concrete: Lightweight concrete is utilized in certain areas of nuclear power plant
construction, offering advantages such as reduced dead load, improved thermal insulation, and
potential cost savings. However, its use in such environments must be carefully evaluated and
comply with strict safety and regulatory standards. Here are some considerations regarding the
application of lightweight concrete in nuclear power plant construction:

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• Reduced Dead Load: Lightweight concrete is characterized by its lower density compared to
traditional concrete. This results in a reduced dead load on the structure, which can be
advantageous for certain components, such as non-structural walls, partitions, and suspended
ceilings. The reduced weight can facilitate easier installation, minimize the structural support
required, and potentially optimize construction costs.

• Thermal Insulation: Lightweight concrete exhibits better thermal insulation properties than
regular concrete. This can be beneficial in areas where thermal stability is important, such as
containment structures or areas near sensitive equipment. Improved insulation can help regulate
temperature, reduce energy consumption, and enhance safety.

• Workability and Construction Efficiency: Lightweight concrete is typically more workable and
easier to handle than traditional concrete due to its lower density and improved flow
characteristics. This can result in increased construction efficiency and faster installation,
reducing overall project timelines.

• Acoustic Insulation: Lightweight concrete also provides enhanced sound insulation compared to
regular concrete. This property can be advantageous in areas where noise control is critical, such
as control rooms or adjacent offices.

Self-Compacting Concrete: Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a specialized type of concrete that

possesses the ability to flow and fill formwork without the need for mechanical vibration. It is also
known as self-consolidating concrete or self-levelling concrete. SCC is highly fluid and can easily
flow into intricate and congested reinforcement without the need for compaction.
The key characteristics of self-compacting concrete include:
• High flowability: SCC has a high slump flow, typically ranging from 600 to 800 mm (23 to 31
inches). It can flow and spread under its weight, filling even the tightest of spaces.
• Excellent workability: SCC is easy to handle and requires minimal or no vibration for
compaction. It can be placed and finished more quickly compared to traditional concrete, saving
time and labour costs.
• Self-levelling ability: SCC can level and settle evenly without the need for additional
intervention. This property ensures a smooth and uniform surface finish.
• Superior filling capacity: SCC can easily fill complex and congested formwork, including
narrow gaps and densely reinforced sections, without the need for compaction. This makes it
suitable for structures with intricate designs or heavily reinforced areas.

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 TENDER AND CONTRACT

In construction projects, the terms "tender" and "contract" refer to two distinct stages of the
procurement process:

Tender: A tender is a formal invitation or announcement made by the client (often a project owner
or a government agency) to contractors, inviting them to submit competitive bids or proposals for
the construction project. The tender process allows contractors to compete for the project by
providing their proposed price, methodology, schedule, and other relevant information. The purpose
of the tender stage is to select the most suitable contractor for the project based on various criteria,
including price, qualifications, experience, and capability.

During the tender stage, contractors typically review the project's tender documents, which include
drawings, specifications, contract conditions, and other relevant information. They prepare their
bids or proposals based on these documents, including the estimated cost, project schedule, and any
other requirements specified by the client. The tender documents may also outline the evaluation
criteria that will be used to assess the bids.

After the submission deadline, the client evaluates the received bids and selects the contractor who
best meets the project requirements. The selected contractor may be awarded the contract, or the
client may enter into further negotiations or seek clarification before making a final decision.

Contract: Once the tender process is completed, and a contractor has been selected, the next stage
involves the formation of a contract. A contract is a legally binding agreement between the client
and the contractor, which defines both parties' terms, conditions, and obligations for the
construction project.

The contract documents, which may include the contract agreement, conditions of the contract,
specifications, drawings, and any other relevant attachments, outline the rights, responsibilities, and
expectations of each party. They specify key aspects such as project scope, deliverables, payment
terms, project schedule, quality requirements, dispute resolution mechanisms, and other contractual
provisions.

Upon signing the contract, the client and the contractor are bound by its terms and are obligated to
fulfil their respective roles and responsibilities as outlined in the agreement. The contract governs
the relationship between the parties throughout the project's duration, including the execution,
completion, and final handover of the construction work.
It's important for both parties to carefully review and understand the contract terms before signing,
and seek legal or professional advice if needed, to ensure clarity, fairness, and mutual agreement on
all aspects of the project.

Note that the specific tender and contract processes may vary depending on the jurisdiction, project
type, and industry practices. It's recommended to consult legal professionals or relevant industry
experts to ensure compliance with local regulations and best practices in tendering and contracting.

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 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, my journey through the training program at Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant has
been nothing short of transformative. This invaluable experience has not only equipped me with a
comprehensive understanding of nuclear power operations but has also ignited a profound sense of
awe and appreciation for the remarkable complexities involved in harnessing the power of the atom.
Throughout the program, I had the privilege of working alongside a dedicated team of professionals
who tirelessly shared their expertise, guidance, and unwavering commitment to safety. Their
mentorship and support were instrumental in nurturing my growth and fostering a deep sense of
responsibility towards the safe and efficient operation of nuclear power plants.

The state-of-the-art infrastructure and cutting-edge technologies at Koodankulam Nuclear Power

Plant served as a testament to India's commitment to sustainable energy solutions and its prowess in
the field of nuclear power.

Beyond the technical aspects, I was deeply inspired by the plant's unwavering dedication to
environmental stewardship and community engagement. Witnessing the plant's stringent safety
protocols, robust emergency response mechanisms, and proactive measures to minimize
environmental impact left an indelible impression on me. The plant's strong emphasis on
transparency, open communication, and public outreach initiatives showcased its genuine
commitment to fostering trust and building strong relationships with the local community.

As I reflect upon my time at the Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant, I am filled with gratitude for
the invaluable knowledge gained, the remarkable experiences shared, and the lifelong connections
forged. This training program has not only equipped me with the skills and insights necessary for a
successful career in the nuclear industry but has also instilled in me a profound sense of
responsibility, safety, and a deep appreciation for the role of nuclear power in shaping a sustainable
future.

I leave this program with a profound sense of purpose and the firm belief that through continued
collaboration, innovation, and responsible practices, Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant and the
broader nuclear industry will continue to play a pivotal role in meeting India’s growing energy
needs while safeguarding the environment and ensuring the well-being of future generations.

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