JAYAMATHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RAJA NAGAR, ARALVAIMOLZHI

KANYAKUMARI

NAME : …………………………………………….
BRANCH : …………………………………………….
YEAR & SEMESTER : ……………………………………………..
 JAYAMATHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
RAJA NAGAR, ARALVAIMOLZHI
KANYAKUMARI

PRACTICAL RECORD

Certificated that this is the Bonafide Record of work done by

Mr/Mrs……………………………………………………………...of
the……………………Year/semester in ……………………….of
this college, in the ………………………………………………in
practical fulfilment of the requirements of the B.E/B.Tech/M.E
Degree course of the Anna University.

Staff in – Charge Head of the Department

University Reg No: ……………………………………….
University Examination Held in April/November…………………..

Internal Examiner External Examiner

EX. NO DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT REMARKS
 Experiment Number: 1
Title of the Experiment: Thermal Conductivity of Pipe Insulation Using
Lagged Pipe Apparatus
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To plot the radial temperature distribution in the composite cylinder and to determine
the thermal conductivity of the pipe insulation.

THEORY
Consider one dimensional radial heat flow through a hollow cylinder, under steady
state conditions.
q = 2πKL [T1 – T2] / ln [r2/r1]
Where T1, T2 are the inner and outer wall temperature r1 and r2 are the inner and outer
radii of the pipe.
K = Thermal conductivity of the material.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Lagged Pipe Apparatus 1

b] Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of a metal pipe with two layers of insulation. An electric heating
coil wound on a silica rod is placed at the center. The ends are thickly insulated to prevent heat
loss so that, heat flow only in a radial direction. Three thermocouples each are placed at
different radii to measure the temperature distribution within the cylinder.
c] Technical Data:
Location of thermocouples 1, 2, 3 at a radius = 25 mm.
Location of thermocouples 4, 5, 6 at a radius = 37.5 mm.
Location of thermocouples 7, 8, 9 at a radius = 50 mm.
Location of thermocouples 10, 11, 12 at a radius = 62.5 mm.
Length of the pipe L = 500 mm.
TABULATION

Heat Input Temp at Radius Temp at Radius Temp at Radius Temp at Radius
S.No
[watts] R1 0C R2 0C R3 0C R4 0C

V A q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

1.
75 0.44 33 111.8 133.8 102.2 37.2 41.9 37.3 35.4 39.9 39.7 31.8 30.2 30.4

MODEL CALCULATION:

At r1 = 25 mm
T1 = (111.8 + 133.8 + 102.2) / 3 = 115.930C.

At r2 = 37.5 mm
T2 = (37.2 + 41.9 + 37.3) / 3 = 38.80C.

At r3 = 50 mm
T3 = (35.4 + 39.9 + 39.7) / 3 = 38.330C.

At r4 = 62.5 mm
T4 = (31.8 + 30.2 + 30.4) / 3 = 30.80C.

q = 2 π KL [T2 – T3] / ln [r3/r2]

q = V x I = 75 x 0.44 = 33.
K = q ln [r3/r2] / 2π L [T2 – T3]

= 33 ln [0.05/0.0375] / 2π x 0.5 [38.8 – 38.33]

K = 0.1948 W/mK.
d] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Connect the equipment to a 230V, 5 amps, and 50 HZ electrical source.
2. Twin the dimmerstat knob clockwise and fix the heat input to a desired
wattage [V x I]
3. Allow the equipment to stabilize and attain steady state.
4. Turn the thermocouple selector switch knob clockwise and note down
temperature T1 to T12.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.

d] Formula:
q = 2 π KL [T2 – T3] / ln [r3/r2]
T2 = Temperature at radius r2 0 C
T3 = Temperature at radius r3 0C
r = radius of the pipe ‘m’
K = Thermal Conductivity – W/m K
L = Length of the pipe – ‘m’

e] Result:
Thus the thermal Conductivity of the pipe insulation is determined.
K = 0.1948 W/m K.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is conduction?
Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of high temperature to
a region of low temperature within a medium [solid, liquid or gases] or different
medium in direct physical contact.
2. State Fourier’s law of conduction.
The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the
direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction.
Q α – A dT / dx
Q = -kA dT /dx
Where, A – Area in m2.
dT / dx – Temperature gradient, K/m
k – Thermal conductivity, W/mK.
3. Define Thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.
4. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a slab or plane wall.
Heat transfer, Q = ∆ Toverall / R
Where, ∆ T = T1 – T2
R = L / kA – Thermal resistance of slab
L – Thickness of slab
K – Thermal conductivity of slab
A – Area
5. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a hollow cylinder.
Heat transfer, Q = ∆ Toverall / R
Where
∆ T = T1 – T2
R = 1 / 2πLk in [r2 / r1] – Thermal resistance of slab.
L – Length of cylinder
k – Thermal conductivity
r2 – Outer radius
r1 – Inner radius
6. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?
a. Moisture b. Density of material c. Pressure
d. Temperature e. Structure of material.
 TABULATION
Am- Thermocouple Location in 0C
Volt
S. Meter In [T8] Tmf
Meter Ts 0C
No Reading Put Ta [Ts + Ta] / 2
Reading 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0
. [I] Watts C. C
[Volts]
Amps
1. 78.125 0.64 50 53 56 62 68 66 71 64 62.857 38 50.429

2. 84.337 0.83 70 83 92 101 107 101 110 103 99.571 38 68.736

3. 91.836 0.98 90 98 102 121 128 123 133 113 116.857 39 77.929

CALCULATION:
[1] Experiment heat transfer co-efficient [Average]
Q = hA [∆T] Watts.
` Q = hA [Ts – Ta] Watts.
h = Q / A [Ts – Ta] W/m2K.
h = 50 / π x d x l [Ts – Ta] = 50 / π x 0.031 x 0.5 [62.857 – 38]
havg = 41.309 W/m2K.
[2] Local heat transfer co-efficient:
hexp[local] = Q / A[Tx – Ta].
h1 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [53 - 38] = 68.454 W/m2K.
h2 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [56 - 38] = 57.045 W/m2K.
h3 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [62 - 38] = 42.784 W/m2K.
h4 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [68 - 38] = 34.227 W/m2K.
h5 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [66 - 38] = 36.672 W/m2K.
h6 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [71 - 38] = 31.115 W/m2K.
h7 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [64 - 38] = 39.493 W/m2K.
[3] Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient. htheo [Average]
Gr = [g x L3 x β x ∆T] / ν2
β = 1 / Tmf in K = 1 / [50.429 + 273] = 3.092 x 10-3 0K-1.
∆T = [Ts – Ta] = 24.857 0C.
Tf = [Ts + Ta] / 2 = [62.857 + 38] / 2 = 50.429 = 50 0C.
Properties of air at 500C
ρ = 1.093 kg/m3; Pr = 0.698; L = 0.5 m;
ν = 17.95 x 10 m /s;
-6 2
K = 0.02826 W/m K; g = 9.81 m/sec2.
Gr = [g x Lx3 x β x ∆T] / ν2 = {9.81 x [0.5]3 x 3.092 x10-3 x 24.857} /[17.95 x 10-6]2
Gr = 0.0942 / 3.222 x 10-10 = 2.924 x 108.
GrPr = [2.924 x 108] x 0.698 = 2.040 x 108.
Nu = 0.59 [2.040 x 108]0.25 = 70.511
70.511 = h x 0.5 / 0.02826
htheo = 3.985 W/m2K.
 Experiment Number: 2
Title of the Experiment: Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Vertical
Cylinder
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine surface heat transfer co-efficient, local heat transfer co-efficient along
the length of the tube and also to draw the graph between local heat transfer co-efficient and
distance along the length of the tube.

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Natural convection-vertical cylinder 1

apparatus

b] Theory
When a hot body is kept in a still air, heat is transferred to the surrounding by natural
convection, the fluid layer in contact with the hot surface gets heated, rises up due to decrease
in its density and the cold fluid rushes into take its place. The process is continuous and heat
transfer takes place due to relative motion of hot and cold fluid. The surface heat transfer co-
efficient of a system transferring heat by natural convection depends upon its shape, dimension,
orientation and also the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid.

c] Apparatus Description
The apparatus consists of a Brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical fashion.
The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of
undisturbed surrounding. One side of the duct is made up of Perspex sheet for visualization.
An electric heating element is kept in the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube to the
surrounding air by natural convection. The surface temperature of the vertical tube is measured
by seven thermocouple wires. The tube surface is polished to minimize the radiation losses.
The temperature of the tube measured by a temperature indicator.

Specification:
[1] Diameter of the tube [d] = 31 mm.
[2] Length of the tube [l] = 500 mm.
[3] Duct size = 200 mm x 200 mm x 750 mm
 [4] Theoretical Local heat transfer co-efficient. htheo [Local]
Gr [local] = [g x β x L x3 x ∆T] / ν2
[i] Tmf [Local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [53 +38] / 2 = 45.50C.
Properties of air at 45.50C
ρ = 1.109 kg/m3; Pr = 0.685; Lx = 0.01 m;
ν = 17.505 x 10 m /s K = 0.02795 W/mK; g = 9.81 m2/s;
-6 2

Gr = [g x β x Lx 3 x ∆T] / ν2 β = 1 / 318.5 = 3.140 x 10-3.

= 9.81 x 3.140 x 10-3 x 0.013 x [53 – 38] / [17.505 x 10-6]2
Gr = 1.508 x 103.
Gr Pr = [1.508 x 103] [0.685]
Gr Pr = 1.033 x 103.
10 ≤ Gr Pr ≤ 109
4
Nu = [0.59] [Gr Pr] 0.25
= [0.59] [1.033 x 103] 0.25 = 3.345
Nu = hL Lx / K
3.345 = hL [0.01] / 0.02795
hL1 = 9.349 W/m2K.
[ii] Tmf [Local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [56 + 38] / 2 = 470C.
Properties of air at 470C
ρ = 1.104 kg/m3; Pr = 0.689; Lx = 0.05 m;
ν = 17.653 x 10-6 m2/s K = 0.02805 W/mK; β = 1 /320 = 3.125 x 10-3
Gr = [g x β x Lx3 x ∆T] / ν2
= 9.81 x 3.125 x 10-3 x 0.053 x [56 - 38] / [17.653 x 10-6]2
Gr = 2.214 x 105.
Gr Pr = [2.214 x 105] x [0.689] = 1.525 x 105
Nu = [0.59] [1.525 x 105]0.25 = 11.66.
Nu = hL Lx / K
11.66 = [hL x 0.05] / 0.02805
hL2 = 6.54 W/m2K.
[iii] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [62 + 38] / 2 = 500C.
Properties of air at 500C
ρ = 1.093 kg/m3; Pr = 0.698; Lx = 0.1 m;
ν = 17.95 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02826 W/mK; β = 3.0296 x 10-3
Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.096 x 10-3 x 0.13 x [62 - 38]/ [17.95 x 10-6]2 = 2.262 x 106.
Gr Pr = [2.262 x 106] x [0.698] = 1.579 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [1.579 x 106]0.25 = 20.91.
Nu = hL Lx / K
20.91 = [hL x 0.1] / 0.02826
hL3 = 5.909 W/m2K.
[iv] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [68 + 38] / 2 = 530C.
Properties of air at 530C
ρ = 1.083 kg/m3; Pr = 0.697; Lx = 0.2 m;
ν = 18.26 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02847 W/mK; β = 3.067 x 10-3
 [4] Number of Thermocouples = 7 and are shown as [1] – [7] and as marked on
temperature indicator switch.
[5] Thermocouple number 8 reads the temperature of the air in the duct.
[6] Temperature indicator 0 – 3000C. Multichannel type, calibrated for chromel –
alumel thermo couples.
[7] Ammeter = [0 – 2A]
[8] Voltmeter = [0 – 100/200V]
[9] Dimmer start = 2A/230Volt.
[10] Heater – cartridge type = 400 Watts

d] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Switch on the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required heat
input.
2. Wait till the fairly steady state is reached, which is confirmed from
temperature readings [T1 to T7].
3. Note down surface temperature at various points.
4. Note the Ambient Temperature [T8].
5. Repeat the experiment at different heat inputs.
Precautions:
[1] Do not exceed 100 Watts.
[2] Operate the change over selector switch gently from position [1] to [8].

Formula Used:
[1] Ts = [T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7] / 7 0C
Where T1, T2, T3, ............. T7 are temperature at locations 1, 2 --7
Mean film temperature [Tmf] = [Ts + Ta] / 2.
Where Ts = Average surface temperature in 0C.
Ta = Ambient Temperature in 0C.
Experiment heat transfer co-efficient [Average]
Q = hA [∆T] Watts.
Where h = Experimental convective heat transfer co-efficient
[Average] W/m2K.
A = Area of heat transfer πd L m2.
∆T = Ts – Ta in 0C.
Ts = Surface temperature in 0C.
Ta = Ambient temperature in 0C.
Q = Average rate of heat transfer by convection in [Watts].
hexp [average] = Q / As[Ts – Ta] W/m2K.
 Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.067 x 10-3 x 0.23 x [68 – 38] / [18.26 x 10-6]2 = 21.659 x 106.
Gr Pr = [21.659 x 106] x [0.697] = 15.096 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [15.096 x 106]0.25 = 36.776.
Nu = hL Lx / K
36.776 = [hL4 x 0.2] / 0.2847
hL4 = 5.235 W/m2K.
[v] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [66 + 38] / 2 = 520C.
Properties of air at 520C
ρ = 1.086 kg/m3; Pr = 0.698; Lx = 0.3 m;
ν = 18.15 x 10-6 m2/s K = 0.02840 W/mK; β = 3.077 x 10-3
Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.077 x 10-3 x 0.33 x [66 – 38] / [18.15 x 10-6]2 = 69.28 x 106.
Gr Pr = [69.28 x 106] [0.698] = 48.36 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [48.36 x 106]0.25 = 49.201.
Nu = hL Lx / K
49.201 = hL5 x 0.3 / 0.02840
hL5 = 4.658 W/m2K.
[vi] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [71 + 38] / 2 = 54.50C.
Properties of air at 54.50C
ρ = 1.078 kg/m3; Pr = 0.697; Lx = 0.4 m;
ν = 18.41 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02858 W/mK; β = 3.053 x 10-3

Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.053 x 10-3 x 0.43 x [71 – 38] / [18.41 x 10-6]2 = 186.63 x 106.
Gr Pr = [186.63 x 106] x [0.697] = 130.08 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [130.08 x 106]0.25 = 63.01.
Nu = hL Lx / K
Nu = [hL x 0.4] / 0.02858
63.01 = [hL x 0.4] / 0.2858
hL6 = 4.502 W/m2K.
[vii] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [64 + 38] / 2 = 510C.
Properties of air at 510C
ρ = 1.090 kg/m3; Pr = 0.698; Lx = 0.49 m;
ν = 18.052 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02833 W/mK; β = 3.086 x 10-3
Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.086 x 10-3 x 0.493 x [64 – 38] / [18.052 x 10-6]2 = 284.136 x 106.
Gr Pr = [284.136 x 106] x 0.698 = 198.33 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] x [198.33 x 106]0.25 = 70.16
Nu = hL Lx / K
Nu = [hL x 0.49] / 0.02833
70.16 = hL x 0.49 / 0.2833
hL7 = 4.048 W/m2K.
[2] Local heat transfer co-efficient:
hexp[local] = Q / A[Tx – Ta].
Where Tx = Temperature at locations 1 to 7 in 0K.
The local heat transfer co-efficient h1, h2, h3, ............. h7 can be calculated from the
above equation.

[3] Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient [Average].

Using free convection correlation for vertical cylinder.
Nu = 0.59 [Gr. Pr] 0.25 for 104 ≤ Gr. Pr ≤ 109.
= 0.13 [Gr. Pr]1/3 for 109 ≤ Gr. Pr ≤ 1012.
Nu = Nusselt Number.
Gr = Grashof Number.
Pr = Prandtl Number.

Grash of Number = g x L3 x β x ∆T / ν2
Where g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2.
L = Characteristics dimension in meters, Here L = 0.5 m.
β = Co-efficient of thermal expansion for the fluid
β = 1 / Tf in K.
∆T = Temperature difference in 0K = [Ts – Ta].
ν = Kinematic viscosity of the air at mean film temperature, m2/s.
[from the HMT Data book].
pr = Prandtl Number of air at Tmf [from the HMT Data book].
Nu = hL/K.
Where h = Convective heat transfer co-efficient in w/m2K.
L = Characteristic dimension in m. L = 0.5 m.
K = Thermal conductivity of air at Tmf [from HMT Data book]

[4] Theoretical Local heat transfer co-efficient. htheo [Local]

Gr [local] = g x Lx3 x β x ∆T / ν2
Where Lx = L1, L2, L3, ......... L7 distance from the bottom of the
tube in ‘m’
Pr = Prandtl Number [Tmf]
Tmf [local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2
Tx = Temperature at point 1 to 7.
ν = Kinematic viscosity at Tmf in m2/s.
∆T = Temperature difference - [Tx – Ta] in 0K.
Nu [Local] = hl Ll / K.
Where hl = Local convective heat transfer co-efficient at point
1 to 7 in w/m2K.
Ll = Characterstics dimension in m.
K = Thermal conductivity of air at Tmf in w/m2K.
Result:
Thus the average surface heat transfer co-efficient and local heat transfer co-efficient
along the length of the tube are determined and also the graph b/w local heat transfer co-
efficient and the distance along the height of the tube is drawn. The results are tabulated.
Experiment local heat transfer co-efficient:
Average
Surface
Heat
2
Input Local heat transfer co-efficient [w/m K] [experiment] Transfer
S. No.
[watts] Co-
efficient
[w/m2K]
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
1. 50 68.45 57.045 42.784 34.227 36.672 31.17 39.493 41.309
Theortical Local heat transfer co-efficient:
Average
Heat
[Theortical]Local heat transfer co-efficient experiment Transfer
Input 2
S. No. [w/m K] Co-
[watts]
efficient
[w/m2K]
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
1. 50 9.349 6.54 5.909 5.235 4.658 4.502 4.048 3.983

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by free or natural convection?
It is fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from
temperature gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection.
2. Define Grashof number [Gr].
It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the
square of viscous force. Gr = Inertia force x Buoyancy force / [Viscous force]2
3. Define Stanton number [St].
It is the ratio of Nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number and
Prandtl number. St = Nu / Re x Pr.
4. What is meant by Newtonion and non-newtonion fluids?
The fluids which obey the Newton’s law of viscosity are called Newtonion
fluids and those which do not obey are called no-newtonion fluids.
5. What is meant by laminar flow ?
Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of flow,
the fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth continuous path. The
fluid particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without mixing with each
other.
 Experiment Number: 3
Title of the Experiment: Forced Convection inside Tube
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the heat transfer coefficient on the given Forced Convection inside tube
Apparatus.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities Required Quantity

1. Forced Convection inside tube Apparatus 1

b] Description
The experimental setup consists of a tube through which air is sent in by a blower. The
test section consists of a long electrical surface heater on the tube which serves as a constant
heat flux source on the flowing medium. The inlet and outlet temperatures of the flowing air
are measured by thermocouples and also the temperatures at several locations along the surface
heater from which on average temperature can be obtained. An orifice meter in the tube is used
to measure the air flow rate with a ‘U tube water manometer.
An ammeter and a voltmeter are provided to measure the power input to the heater.
A power regulator is provided to vary the power input to heater.
A multipoint digital temperature indicator is provided to measure the above
thermocouples input.
A valve is provided to regulate the flow rate of air.

c] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Switch on the main.
2. Switch on the blower.
3. Adjust the regulator to any desired power into input to heater.
4. Adjust the position of the valve to any desired flow rate of air.
5. Wait till steady state temperature is reached.
6. Note manometer reading h1 and h2.
7. Note temperatures along the tube. Note air inlet and outlet temperature.
8. Note voltmeter and ammeter reading.
9. Adjust the position of the valve and vary the flow rate of air and repeat the
experiment.
10. For various valve openings and for various power inputs the readings may
be taken to repeat the experiments.
TABULATION:
Inlet Outlet Temperature along Manometer
Voltage Current
Temperature Temperature the duct reading
S.No. [V] [A]
of air [T1] of air [T6] T2 T3 T4 T5 h1 h2
[Volts] [Amps] 0 0 0 [0
C] [0
C] [0
C] [cm] [cm]
[ C] [ C] [ C]

1 50 1 35 38 42 45 46 47 9 19

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
PI = V x I = 50 watts
VI = h x A x ∆t
∆t = Average temperature of heater – Average temperature of air
∆t = 45 – 36.5
∆t = 8.50C
Average temperature of heater = T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 / 4 = 42+45+46+47 / 4 = 450C.
Average temperature of air = T1 + T6 / 2 = 35 + 33 / 2 = 36.50C.

A = Area of heat transfer

A=πxdxl Diameter of tube d = 0.04m
Length of the tube l = 0.5m
A = 3.14 x 0.04 x 0.5
A = 0.0634m2.

VI = h x A x ∆t
50 = h X 0.0634 X 8.5
h = 92.782 W/m2C.
THEORTICAL METHOD
Q = Cd x a1 x a2 √2gho / √a12 – a22
ho = [h1 – h2] x [ρw/ρa] m3/sec
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
ρa = 1.16 kg/m3.
[1] EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
VI = hA∆t
Where,
∆t = Average temperature of heater – Average temperature of air [0C].
A = πdl
A = Area of heat transfer.
d = diameter of the tube = 0.04m
l = length of the tube = 0.5m.
h = heat transfer co-efficient [W/m2 C]
VI = Power input to heater.
[2] THEORITICAL METHOD:
Q = Cd x a1 x a2 √2gho / √a12 – a2 2 m3/sec.
ho = head of air causing the flow.
= [h1 – h2] x [ρw/ρa]
ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
ρa = Density of air = 1.16 kg/m3.
h1, h2 = Manometer reading in m.
a1 = Area of the tube.
a2 = Area of the orifice.
Q = Volume of air flowing through the tube.
Cd = 0.6
[3] VELOCITY OF AIR:
V = Q/a m/sec.
[4] REYNOLDS NUMBER:
Re = VD/ υ.
V = Velocity of air
D = Dia. of the pipe.
υ = Kinematic viscosity of air.
[5] Nu = hD/K
K = Thermal conductivity of air.
Nu = 0.023 x Re0.8 x Pr0.4
Re = Reynolds Number.
Pr = Prandtl Number.

d] Result:
Thus the experiment of the forced convection is conducted and heat transfer
coefficient are calculated.
Heat Transfer Co-efficient:
Experimental value = 92.782 W/m2C.
Theoretical value = 31.2395763 W/ m2C.
 h1 = 9
h2 = 19.
ho = [19-9] x [1000/1.16]
= 10 x 862.069 = 86.20689 m.
Cd = 0.6
a1 = π/4 x d12
d1 = Dia of pipe = 40mm = 0.04m
= π/4 x [0.04]2
a1 = 0.00125664 m2.
a2 = π/4 x d22
d2 = Dia of the orifice = 20mm = 0.02m.
= π/4 x [0.02]2
a2 = 0.00031416m2.
Q = 0.6 x 0.00125664 x 0.00031416 x √2 x 9.81x 86.20689 / √ [0.00125664]2 –
[0.00031416]2
-7 -3
Q = 2.3687 x 10 x 411.264/1.216 x 10
Q = 0.008006376m3/sec.
VELOCITY OF AIR FLOW
V = Q / a1
= 0.008006376/0.00125664
= 6.3713m/sec.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
Re = VD/ υ.
υ - Kinematic viscosity from HMT Data book
υ = 0.00001696
= 6.3713 x 0.04 / 0.00001696
Re = 15027.
NUSSELT NUMBER
Nu = hD/K
Nu = 0.023 x [15027]0.8 x [0.698]0.33
Nu = 43.75290799.
Nu = hD/K
K - Thermal conductivity from HMT Data book
K = 0.02856.
43.75290799 = h x 0.04 / 0.02856
h = 31.2395763 W/m2C.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define Convection.
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface
and a fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.
2. Define Reynolds number [Re].
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.
Re = Inertia force / Viscous force
3. Define Prandtl number [Pr].
It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity.
Pr = Momentum diffusivity / Thermal diffusivity
4. Define Nusselt Number [Nu].
It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under an unit
temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an unit temperature
gradient through a stationary thickness [L] of metre.
Nusselt Number [Nu] = qconv /qcond
5. State Newton’s law of convection.
Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surface is given by the equation.
Q = h A = [Tw - T∞]
This equation is referred to as Newton’s law of cooling.
Where h = Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K.
A = Surface area in m2.
Tw = Surface [or] Wall temperature in K.
T∞ = Temperature of fluid in K.
6. What is forced convection?
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a
blower or fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.
7. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced convection?
1. Reynolds number [Re].
2. Nusselt number [Nu].
3. Prandtl number [Pr].
 Experiment Number: 4
Title of the Experiment: Heat transfer from pin-fin(natural & forced
convection modes)
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine Heat transfer from pin-fin(natural & forced convection modes)
.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity
1. Pin-fin Apparatus 1

b] Apparatus Description
The heat transfer from a heated surface to the ambient surrounding is given by the
relation, q = h A T. In this relation hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, T is the
temperature difference & A is the area of heat transfer. To increase q, h may be increased or
surface area may by increased. In some cases it is not possible to increase the value of heat
transfer coefficient & the temperature difference T & thus the only alternative is to increase
the surface area of heat transfer. The surface area is increased by attaching extra material in
the form of rod (circular or rectangular) on the surface where we have to increase the heat
transfer rate. "This extra material attached is called the extended surface or fin."The fins may
be attached on a plane surface, and then they are called plane surface fins. If the fins are
attached on the cylindrical surface, they are called circumferential fins. The cross section of
the fin may be circular, rectangular, triangular or parabolic.
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.
3. Turn the Variac (dimmerstat) clockwise and adjust the power input to the heater to
the desired value and switch on the blower.
4. Set the air–flow rate to any desired value by adjusting the difference in mercury
levels in the manometer and allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperatures, T1 to T6 from the thermocouple selector switch.
6. Note down the difference in level of the manometer and repeat the experiment for
different power inputs to the heater.
7. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.
8. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.
FORMULA:
 Where;
d0 = Diameter of the Orifice; dp = Diameter of the pipe

Where;
m = density of manometric fluid = 13.6 x 10³ kg/m³
a = density of air = 1.17 kg/m³

Velocity at orifice x cross sectional area of orifice

Va = Velocity of air in the duct =
Cross sectional area of duct
V0 x (d0²)/4
Va = =
WxB
Where,
dp = diameter of pipe
d0 = diameter of orifice
W = Width of the duct
B = Breadth of duct

Average surface temperature of fin is given by

T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5

Ts = + 273.15 = K
5
T = T6 = Ambient temperature = + 273.15 = K

Tm = Mean temperature = Ts + T
2

0
Properties of air at C
ν= , Pr = ,K=

Va df

Re = ----------- = Re = Reynolds number

ν Pr = Prandtl number
Nu = Nusselt number
The relationship for Nu is

n 1 /3
Nu = C Re Pr
For Re = 0.4 to 4.0 C = 0.989 and n = 0.33
Re = 4 to 40 C = 0.911 and n = 0.385
Re = 40 to 4000 C = 0.683 and n = 0.466
Re = 4000 to 40,000 C = 0.293 and n = 0.618
Re = 40,000 to 400,000 C = 0.27 and n = 0.805
Nu k
h=
df
TABULATION:

Sl. Heat Input Pressure drop, ‘h’ Temperatures, 0C

No. mm of mercury,

V A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

1 61 0.27 5mm 70 62 58 56 54 40

CALCULATION:

1. β = = = 0.4

Thermal Expansion β = 0.4

2. Velocity of ofifice :

X(1/1-β)

d] Result:

Thus the heat transfer coefficient under forced convection is found out the efficiency of fin.
(i).Theoretical value of temperature of fin= 327 K
(ii).Effectiveness of fin=0.6
(iii).Efficiency of fin=40%
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is fin?
Fins are extended surfaces used primarily to enhance the heat transfer rate between
the solid fins and an adjoining fluid
2. Define Fin effectiveness

3. List out the Fin types.

1. Straight fin of uniform cross section
2. Straight fin of non-uniform cross section
3. Annular fin
4. Pin fin
5. Sketch all types of fins
 Experiment Number: 5
Title of the Experiment: Determination of stefan-boltzmann constant
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the value of Stefan boltzman constant for radiation heat transfer.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity
1. Stefan-Boltzmann constant Apparatus 1

b] Apparatus Description
The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-
conducting plate. A test disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc is
completely enclosed by the hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is enclosed in a
vertical water jacket used to heat the hemisphere to a suitable constant temperature. Three Cr-
Al thermocouples are attached at four strategic places on the surface of the hemisphere to
obtain the temperatures. The disc is mounted on an ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole drilled
at the center of the base plate. Another Cr-Al thermocouple is fixed to the disc to record its
temperature. Fill the water in the SS water container with immersion heater kept on top of the
panel.
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
2. Heat the water in the ss containers to its boiling point .
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper
bemisphere units it is full .allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which
is indicated by the four thermocouple provided on the hemisphere.
4. Insert the test disc fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completwly inside and lock it.
Start the stop clock simultaneously .
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an inter val of about 15 sec for about
15 to 20 minutes.
6. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
7. Heat the water in the ss containers to its boiling point .
8. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper
bemisphere units it is full .allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which
is indicated by the four thermocouple provided on the hemisphere.
FORMULA:
Eb = σT4
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
1. Temperature of disc v/s time to obtain the slope (dT/dt) of the line, which passes through/nearer to all
points.
dT/dt=
2. Average temperature of the hemisphere

Tavg = (T1 + T2 + T3 ) + 273.15 = K

3
3. Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber º K (ambient)=
4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp (dT /dt)
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Where, Ad = area of the disc = πd² m2
d = 20 mm 4
Cp = specific heat of copper = 0.38 kJ/kg–K

Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp (dT /dt) = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
m Cp (dT /dt)
σ = =
Ad (T4avg – T4d)

TABULATION:
Thermocouple Temperature of the copper
hemisphere

35

35

35

36
CALCULATION:
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp (dT /dt) = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
m Cp (dT /dt)
σ = = 4.67 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
4 4
Ad (T avg – T d)

d] Result:
Thus the Stefan Boltzman constant for radiation heat transfer is found out and draw the graph.
Stefan Boltzman constant (σ) =4.67 x 10 -8 W/
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Mention Stefan boltzman contant.
σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
2. Define Stefan boltzman contant.
Stefan Boltzman law states that the total emissive power of a perfect black body is proportional to
fourth power of the absolute temperature of black body surface
Eb = σT4
σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
3. Define Emissive power [Eb].
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit time
and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
4. Define monochromatic emissive power. [Ebλ]
The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time per unit area in all directions
is known as monochromatic emissive power.
5. What is meant by absorptivity?
Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed and incident radiation.
Absorptivity, α = Radiation absorbed / Incident radiation.
 Experiment Number: 6
Title of the Experiment: Determination of Emissivity of a Grey Surface

Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the emissivity of the test plate at any desired temperature.

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

a] Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity
1. Emissivity Measurement Apparatus 1

b] Apparatus Description
The experimental setup consists of two circular Al plates identical in size and is
provided with heating coils at the bottom. The plates are mounted on an asbestos cement sheet
and are kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings.
The heat input to the heaters is varied by separate dimmerstats and is measured by a
wattmeter with the help of a double pole double throw switch. The temperatures of the plates
are measured by separate thermocouples which are connected diametric opposite points to get
the average temperature of the places. Other thermocouples are kept in the enclosure to read
the ambient temperature.
Plate 1 is blackened by a thick layer of lamp black to form the idealized black surface
where as the plates 2 is the test plate whose emissivity is to be determined.
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Switch on the power supply.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3. Adjust the position of the regulator to provide desired input to heater.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperature indicated by temperature indicator.
6. Tabulate the readings and calculate.
7. After the experiment is over turn both the energy regulators 1 and 2 to zero position.
8. For various power input repeat the experiment.
FORMULA:
Emissivity εp = εb[Tb4 – Ta4] / [Tp4 – Ta4]
Where εb = Emissivity block body Temperature [εb = 1]
Tb = Block Body Temperature in K.
Tp = Polished Body Temperature in K.
Ta = Chamber Temperature in K.
TABULATION:
Black Body Polished Body Chamber
S.No. Voltage Current Temperature Temperature Temperature
[0C] [0C] [0C]

1 100 0.4 80 90 40

CALCULATION:
[1] Black body Temperature [Tb] = 800 + 273 = 353 K.
[2] Polished body Temperature [Tp] = 900 + 273 = 363 K.
[3] Chamber Temperature [Ta] = 400 + 273 = 313 K.

EMISSIVITY:
εp = εb [Tb4 – Ta4] / [Tp4 – Ta4] [εb = 1]
= 1 x [353 – 313 ] / [363 – 313 ]
4 4 4 4

= [1.55 x 1010 – 9.59 x 109] / [1.736 x 1010 – 9.59 x109]

εp = 0.7626.

d] Result:
Thus the Emissivity of the test plate is determined.
Emissivity εp = 0.7626.
VIVA QUESTIONS
6. Define Radiation.
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium
is known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
7. Define Emissivity.
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also
defined as the ratio of emissive power of any body to the emissive power of a black
body of equal temperature.
Emissivity, ε = E / Eb.
8. Define Emissive power [Eb].
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a
body per unit time and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
9. Define monochromatic emissive power. [Ebλ]
The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time per unit area
in all directions is known as monochromatic emissive power.
10. What is meant by absorptivity?
Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed and incident
radiation.
Absorptivity, α = Radiation absorbed / Incident radiation.
11. What is meant by reflectivity?
Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident
radiation.
Reflectivity, ρ = Radiation reflected / Incident radiation.
12. What is meant by transmissivity?
Transmissivity is defined as the ratio of radiation transmitted to the incident
radiation.
Transmissivity, τ = Radiation transmitted / Incident radiation.
13. What is black body?
Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.
1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wav e length and
direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more
energy than black body.
14. What is meant by gray body?
If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation irrespective of
their wave length, the body is known as gray body. The emissive power of a gray
body is always less than that of the black body.
PARALLEL FLOW SIDE

HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE

Flow rate Thi Tho Flow rate Tci Tco

[kg/s] [0C] [0C] [kg/s] [0C] [0C]
400ml/10sec. 56 45 400ml/12sec 34 39

COUNTER FLOW SIDE

HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE

Flow rate Thi Tho Flow rate Tci Tco

0 0 0
[kg/s] [ C] [ C] [kg/s] [ C] [0C]
800ml/10sec. 82 57 800ml/15sec 35 51
CALCULATION:
PARALLEL FLOW:
LMTD = [Thi – Tci] - [Tho – Tco] / ln [Thi – Tci/Tho – Tco]
Tci = Entry temperature of cold fluid [0C].
Tco = Exit temperature of cold fluid [0C].
Thi = Entry temperature of hot fluid [0C].
Tho = Exit temperature of hot fluid [0C].
= [329 – 307] – [318 – 312] / ln [(329 – 307) / (318 – 312)]
= 12.31 K.
Mass flow rate of hot water mh = 400/10 x 10-6 x 1000 = 400 x 10-4 Kg/s.
Mass flow rate of cold water mc = 400 / 12 x 10-6 x 1000 = 333.3 x 10-4 Kg/s.
Qh = mh x Cph [Thi – Tho]
= 400 x 10-4 x 4.187 x [329 – 318]
Qh = 1.842 KJ/sec.
Qc = mc x cpc [Tco –Tci]
= 333.3 x 10-4 x 4.187 [312 – 307]
Qc = 0.698 KJ/sec.
Qact = [Qh + Qc] / 2 = [1.842 + 0.698] / 2
Qact = 1.27 KJ/sec.
Overall heat transfer co-efficient
A=πxDxL
= π x 0.013 x 1.5
= 0.06123 m2.
U = Qact/A x LMTD
= 1.27 / 0.06123 x 12.31
= 1.685 W/m2K.
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient.
 Experiment Number:7
Title of the Experiment: Thermal Conductivity of insulating powder

Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the Thermal Conductivity of insulating powder

[a] Description
The apparatus consists of two thin walled concentric copper spheres. The inner sphere
houses the heating coil. The insulating powder [Asbestos powder – Lagging Material] is
packed between the two shells. The powder supply to the heating coil is by using a dimmer
stat and is measured by Voltmeter and Ammeter. Choromel Alumel thermocouples are use to
measure the temperatures. Temperature readings in turn enable to find out the Thermal
Conductivity of the insulating powder as an isotropic material and the value of Thermal
Conductivity can be determined.

Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of a hollow sphere formed
by the insulating powdered layer packed between two thin copper spheres.

Let, ri = Radius of inner sphere in meters.

ro = Radius of outer sphere in meters.
Ti = Average Temperature of the inner sphere in 0C.
To = Average Temperature of the outer sphere in 0C.

Where, Ti = [T1+T2+T3+T4] / 4

and To = [T5+T6+T7+T8+T9+T10] / 6

Note that T1 to T10 denote the temperature of thermocouples [1] to [10].

From the experimental values of q, Ti and To the unknown thermal conductivity K cal be
determined as ……
K = q[ro – ri] / 4πri x ro[Ti+To]

Specifications:
1. Radius of the inner copper sphere, ri = 50 mm.
2. Radius of the outer copper sphere, ro = 100 mm.
3. Voltmeter [0 – 100 – 200 V].
4. Ammeter [0 – 2 Amps.]
5. Temperature Indicator 0 – 3000C calibrated for chromel alumel.
6. Dimmerstat 0 – 2A, 0 – 230 V.
7. Heater coil - Strip Heating Element sandwiched between mica sheets – 200 watts.
 8. Chromel Alumel Thermocouples – No. [1] to [4] embedded on inner sphere to
measure Ti.
9. Chromel Alumel Thermocouples – No [5] to [10] embedded on outer sphere to
measure To.
10. Insulating Powder – Asbestos magnesia commercially available powder and
packed between the two spheres.

Precautions:
1. Keep dimmerstat to zero volt position before and after the experiment. Check this
before switching ON the supply.
2. Handle the changeover switch of temperature indicator gently.

b] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Start main switch on control panel.
2. Increase slowly the input to heater by the dimmerstat starting from zero
volt position.
3. Adjust input equal to 40 Watts Max. by Voltmeter and Ammeter.
Wattage W = VI
4. See that this input remains constant throughout the experiment.
5. Wait till fairly steady state condition is reached. This can be checked by
reading temperatures of thermocouples [1] to [10] and note changes in their
readings with time.
6. Note down the readings in the observations table as given below:
Observation Table:
1. Voltmeter reading [V] = Volts.
2. Ammeter reading [I] = Amps.
3. Heater input [VI] = Watts.

INNER SPHERE:
Thermocouple
1 2 3 4
No.
Mean Temp. Ti
T1 T2 T3 T4
Ti = [T1+T2+T3+T4] / 4
Temp. 0C

OUTER SPHERE:

Thermocouple
5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
Mean Temp. Ti
T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
Ti = [T5+T6+…..T10] / 6
Temp. 0C
CALCULATION:
W = V x I Watts.
Ti = Inner sphere mean temp. 0C.
T0 = Outer sphere mean temp. 0C.
ri = Radius of inner copper sphere = 50 mm.
ro = Radius of outer copper sphere = 100 mm.

Using Equation:
q = 0.86 W Kcal/hr [In MKS units]
K = 0.86 W [ro – ri] / 4πri x ro[Ti+To]
q = V x Iw/m – k [In SI units]
K = q[ro – ri] / 4πri x ro[Ti+To]

d] Result:
Thus Thermal Conductivity of insulating powder is determined

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are the modes of heat transfer?
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.
2. What is conduction?
Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of high temperature to
a region of low temperature within a medium [solid, liquid or gases] or different
medium in direct physical contact.
3. State Fourier’s law of conduction.
The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the
direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction.
Q α – A dT / dx
Q = -kA dT /dx
Where, A – Area in m2.
dT / dx – Temperature gradient, K/m
k – Thermal conductivity, W/mK.
4. Define Thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.
Observation Table:
Temperature in Degree
S. No. Mass Flow Rate in Kg/Min. Centigrade
T1, T2, T3, T4 .................... T13
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 Experiment Number:8

Title of the Experiment: HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

Date of the Experiment:

INTRODUCTION:
In engineering applications, we deal with many problems. Heat Transfer through composite
walls is one of them. It is the transport of energy between two or more bodies of different thermal
conductivity arranged in series or parallel. For example, a fastener joining two mediums also acts as
one of the layers between these mediums. Hence, the thermal conductivity of the fastener is also very
much necessary in determining the overall heat transfer through the medium. An attempt has been
made to show the concept of heat transfers through composite walls.

AIM: To determine

1. The overall thermal conductance (C) for a composite wall and to compare with theoretical
value.
2. Temperature distribution across the width of the composite wall.

APPARATUS
a. Mains on indicator
b. Console On switch for activation of the control panel.
c. Scanner for measurement of
i. Temperatures at various locations of the slab.
ii. Input Voltage.
iii. Input Current.
d. Heater regulator to regulate the input voltage.

THEORY
The apparatus consists of three slabs of Mild Steel, Bakelite and Aluminum materials of thickness
25, 20 & 12mm respectively clamped in the center using screw rod. At the center of the composite
wall a heater is fitted. End losses from the composite wall are minimized by providing thick insulation
all rounds to ensure unidirectional heat flow.

PROCEDURE: MANUAL MODE

1. Symmetrically arrange the plates and ensure perfect contact between the plates.
2. Give necessary electrical connections to the instruments.
3. Switch ON mains and the CONSOLE.
4. Set the heater regulator to the known value.
5. Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.
6. Note down the Temperatures, voltage and current using the Data logger.
7. Calculate the overall conductance using the formulae given below.
8. Repeat the experiment for different heat input.

OBSERVATIONS:

Heater
Temperatures C
Sl. Input
No.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 V I

PROCEDURE: COMPUTERIZED
1. Symmetrically arrange the plates and ensure perfect contact between the plates.
2. Give necessary electrical connections to the instruments.
3. Switch ON mains and the CONSOLE.
4. Set the heater regulator to the known value.
5. Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.
6. Turn on the computer switch on the panel.
7. Switch on the computer.
8. Open the “ HEAT TRANSFER Software” from the installed location a welcome screen will be
displayed
9. Follow the below steps to operate through software
a. Login using the given password into the software
b. Screen will display the concept of the equipment. Now login to the experiment by
clicking the “Click to login” button on the screen.
 c. Give required username for the experiment to be conducted.
d. Once the software is opened, the main screen will be displaced
e. Now, press “START” button, and the small screen will be opened for any messages and
also Specifications to be entered.
f. Enter the parameters listed for particular test under study.
g. Now, set the heater regulator to known valve.
h. Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.
i. The software starts displaying the calculated values which can be cross verified based
on the formulae give after.

10. Click the “store” button to store, the value can be viewed anytime later.
11. After completion of the Experiment, press the “STOP” Button.
12. To view the stored data follow the procedure in Annexure.

CALCULATIONS ARE BASED ON THE BELOW FORMULAE:

1. HEAT FLUX ,q
V∗I
𝑞= W/m2
A

Where,
V = voltmeter reading, volts
I = ammeter reading, amps

A = Area of the plate = (d2/4) m2, d = 0.2m

2. AVERAGE TEMPERATURES:
TA = T1

TB = (T2 + T3)/2

TC = (T4 + T5)/2

TD = T6

Where,

TA = Average inlet temperature to Aluminum.

TB = Average outlet temperature from Aluminum/

Average inlet temperature of MS

 TC = Average outlet temperature to MS/
Average inlet temperature to Bakelite.
TD = Average outlet temperature to Bakelite.

3. THERMAL CONDUCTANCE:

PRACTICAL:
𝑄
𝐶= W/m0 K
(𝑇𝐴−𝑇𝐷)

Where,
Q = heat input in watts
(TA – TD) = Temperature difference as calculated.

THEORETICAL:
1 𝑊⁄
𝐶= 1 𝑚−𝑘
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝐴( + + )
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3

K1 = 205 W/m-K
K2 = 25 W/m-K
K3 = 0.08 W/m-K
L1 = 12 mm L2 = 25 mm L3 = 20 mm

4. OVERALL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE SLAB, K

𝑄𝑋𝐵
K= W/m0K
𝑇𝐴−𝑇𝐵

Where, B = thickness of the plates on one side = 0.057m

PRECAUTIONS
❖ This is general equipment for study in undergraduate level, for consideration of higher
level studies you can add any extra parameter required. For adding the parameters call
the supplier.
❖ Don’t run the equipment if the voltage is less than 180V.
❖ Don’t alter the equipment without the supervision of the supplier.
RESULTS:
The overall thermal conductance (C) for a composite wall is ………….
Temperature distribution across the width of the composite wall is …………

ADVANTAGES

✓ Light Weight
✓ High Strength
✓ Corrosion Resistance
✓ High-Impact Strength

LIMITATIONS
Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
Repair at the original cure temperature requires tooling and more costly.

APPLICATIONS
✓ Automotive industry
✓ Aerospace industry

✓ Insulated steam pipe carrying high temperature and high pressure.

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS

1. Define a black surface.

2. What is the range of values for the emissivity of a surface?
3. What are the conditions to be satisfied for the application of a thermal circuit?
4. Thermal conductivity of air with rise in temperature.
5. Unit of thermal conductivity in S.I. units is--
6. Cork is a good insulator because it has --
 7. What is Sensible?
8. When heat is Transferred by molecular collision, it is referred to as heat transfer by
9. Thermal conductivity of solid metals with rise in temperature.
10. How is natural convection different from forced convection?

Reference:
1. Heat and Mass transfer by Arora & Domkundwar.
2. Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, by Robert H. Perry / Cecil H. Chilton Publication: McGraw – Hill
Book Company (6th edition).
 Experiment Number:9

Title of the Experiment: CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

Date of the Experiment:

1. INTRODUCTION:
Boiling and Condensation are the specific convection processes which is associated with
change of phase. The co – efficient of heat transfer are correspondingly very high when compared to
natural conventional process while the accompanying temperature difference are small (quite).

However, the visualization of this mode of heat transfer is more difficult and the actual
solutions are still difficult than conventional heat transfer process.

Commonly, this mode of heat transfer with change of phase is seen in Boilers, condensers in
power plants and evaporators in refrigeration system.

AIM:
1. To observe the formation of pool boiling and
2. To draw the graph of heat flux Vs. Bulk Temperature upto Burnout (Critical) condition.

APPARATUS
1. The apparatus consists of a specially designed Glass Cylinder.
2. An arrangement above the Cylinder in the form of Bakelite plate is provided to place the
main Heater and the Ni-chrome wire heater arrangement.
3. The base is made of MS and is powder coated with Rubber cushion to place the Glass
cylinder.
4. Heater regulator to supply the regulated power input to the heater.

5. Digital Voltmeter and Ammeter to measure poser input ot the heater.

6. Thermocouples at suitable position to measure the temperatures of body and the air.
7. Digital Temperature Indicator with channel selector to measure the temperatures.

THEORY
The apparatus consists of cylindrical glass container housing and the test heater (Ni-chrome wire).
Test heater is connected also to mains via a dimmer. An ammeter is connected in series while a
voltmeter across it to read the current and voltage. The glass container is kept on a stand, which is
fixed on a metallic platform. There is provision of illuminating the test heater wire with the help of a
lamp projecting light from back and the heater wire can be viewed through a lens. This experimental
set up is designed to study the pool-boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point. The pool boiling
over the heater wire can be visualized in the different regions up to the critical heat flux point at which
the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied
voltage across the test wire and the change over from natural convection to nucleate boiling can be
seen

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill in the Glass Cylinder with Distilled Water above the heater level.
2. Connect the Ni-chrome Wire (Test Wire) of suitable length.
3. Keep the heater regulator to the minimum position.
4. Connect the power cable to 1Ph, 220V, 10 Amps with earth connection.
5. Switch on the Mains On to activate the control panel.
6. By using the Main Heater heat the water to the known temperature and switch off the
same.
7. Now, using the Dimmer provided start heating the Test Wire by slowly rising the Current till
the wire breaks.
8. Meanwhile, record the temperature, voltage and Current till the wire breaks
9. Repeat the above experiment by replacing the Test Wire and for Different Temperatures of
Water.

OBSERVATIONS
Heater
Temperatures C
Sl. Input
No.
T1 T2 T3 V I

5
CALCULATIONS:
1. Surface Area of the Wire, A
A= π DL m2

Where d = diameter of Test Wire.

L = Length of Test Wire.

2. Heat Input, Q
Q = V x I Watt

Where,

V = Voltage in Volts.

I = Current in Amps.

3. Heat Flux, q
𝑄𝑊
𝑞= ⁄
𝐴 𝑚2

4. Heat Transfer Co - efficient, h

Where,
ℎ = 1.54𝑞0.75 𝑊⁄𝑚2𝑘

q = Heat Flux
5. Temperature Excess, ∆T
ℎ
∆𝑇 = √ K
5.58
TABULAR COLUMN

Sl Heat Flux,
Temperature Excess, ∆T
No q

PRECAUTIONS

1. Clean the tank regularly after every use.

2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Check all the electrical connections before running.
4. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

RESULTS:

➢ Draw the Graph of q vs. ∆T and

➢ Compare ∆T with the experimental Values i.e.,
(Difference of Water Temperature and the Test Wire/Boiling Temperature)

ADVANTAGES

✓ The critical heat flux for ignition is the lowest thermal load per unit area capable of initiating
a combustion reaction on a given material.

LIMITATIONS
Erosion caused by pitting around the liner, cylinder head and coolant pump.
The critical heat flux for ignition is the lowest thermal load per unit area capable of initiating
a combustion reaction on a given material.

APPLICATIONS
❖ Chemical Process Industry
❖ Energy (kilns, boiler, cross flow heat exchangers, solar panels)
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by boiling?

2. List the various types of boiling.
3. What is pool boiling or nucleate boiling?
4. What is a critical heat flux?
5. What is its importance?
6. What are the two separate processes of nucleate boiling?
7. What is saturated boiling?
8. Define overall heat transfer coefficient.
9. What is a gray surface?
10. What do you understand by stability criterion for the solution of transient problems?
 Experiment Number:10

Title of the Experiment: Determination of the HF coefficient in drop wise & filim wise condensation
Date of the Experiment:
Objective: To study heat transfer in the process of condensation.

Aim: To find heat transfer coefficient for dropwise & filmwise condensation process.

Introduction:

In all applications, the steam must be condensed as it transfers heat to a cooling medium, e.g. Cold water in the
condensers of a generation station, hot water in a heating clarifier, sugar solution in a sugar refinery etc. During
condensation very high heat fluxes are possible and provided the heat can quickly transferred from the condensing
surface to the cooling medium, heat exchangers using steam can be compact and effective.

Theory:

Steam may condense on a surface in two distinct modes, known as film wise and drop wise condensation. For
same temperature between the steam and surface dropwise condensation is much more effective than film wise
condensation and for this reason, the former is desirable although in practical plants, it rarely occurs for prolonged
period.

Film wise condensation: Unless specially treating, most materials are wet table and as condensation occurs as
film condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film depends upon a number of factors, e.g. the
rate of condensation, the viscosity of the fluid, the surface orientation and nature.

Fresh vapor condenses on to the outside of the film and heat is transferred by conduction through the film to metal
surface beneath, as the film thickness increases it flows downward drips from the low points leaving the film
intact and at an equilibrium thickness. The film of liquid is a barrier to the heat transfer and its resistance accounts
for most of the difference between the effectiveness of the film wise and drop wise condensation.

Dropwise condensation: By specially treating the condensing surface, the contact angle can be changed and the
surface become not wettable. As steam condense, a large number of generally spherical beads cover the surface.
As condensation proceeds, the beads become larger, coalesce, and then strike downwards over the surface. The
moving bead gathers on the static beads along its downward in its tail. The bare surface offers very little resistance
to the transfer of heat and very high heat fluxes are therefore possible. Unfortunately, due to nature of material
used in construction of condensing heat exchangers, filmwise condensation is normal.
Experimental setup:

The equipment consists of a metallic container in which steam generation takes place. The lower portion
houses suitable electric heater for steam generation. A cover is provided for filling water. The glass cylinder
houses two water cooled copper condensers, one of which is chromium coated to promote drop wise condensation
and other is in its natural state to give film wise condensation. A pressure gauge is provided to measure steam
pressure. Separate connections of two condensers for passing water are provided. One Rota meter is provided to
measure flow rate of water through the condenser. A multi-channel digital temperature indicator is provided to
measure temperature of steam, condensers, and water inlet and outlet from condenser.

Specifications:

1. Condensers- one chromium plated for drop wise condensation and one having natural finish for film
wise condensation. Both condensers are identical in construction. Dimensions:
Outer diameter: 20.4 mm
Inner diameter: 20 mm
Length: 150 mm
Material: Copper
2. Main unit: M.S. fabricated construction comprising of test section and steam generator. Test section is
provided with glass cylinder for visualization of the process. It also houses Rota meter and necessary
piping and valves to connect any one condenser in operation
3. Steam generator: Suitable for above experiment with electric heater.
4. Instrumentation:
a) Multy-channel digital temperature indicator with cold junction compensation with
thermocouples. Range 0 to 300°𝐶.
b) Rota meter to measure flow rate of water flowing through condenser. Range 10 to 100
Lph.
c) Pressure gauge to measure steam pressure. Dial type, range 0 to 2.1 kg/cm2
5. Control panel: Separate control panel to house temperature indicator, necessary switches, steam
generator etc.

Procedure:

1) Fill up the water in steam generator by opening the valve

 2) Switch ON the heater switch.
3) After filling the water close to the top cover of steam generator. Start water flow through one of the
condensers which is to be tested and note down the water flow rate in Rota meter. Ensure that during
measurement, water is flowing only through the condenser under test.
4) Slowly steam generation will start in the steam generator of the unit and as the steam rises to the test
section, gets condensed and falls down in the cylinder.
5) Depending upon type of condenser under test drop wise or film wise condensation can visualized.
6) If the water flow rate is low then steam pressure is changed then condensation will occur at more or less
atmospheric pressure.
7) Observations like temperature, water flow rate, pressure, are noted down in the observation table at the
end of each test.

FORMULAE:-

Heat loss from steam :Qs =Ms .θ

Heat taken by cold water: Qw = Mw .Cp.(T5-T4)

Average heat transfer: Q= (QS+QW) /2

Inside heat transfer coefficient:Hi = Q/(Ai.∆Tm )

Outside heat transfer coefficient:Ho= Q/(Ao.∆Tm)

Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient: 1/Uex= 1/hi+ (Di/Do).(1/ho)

Nusset number: Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4

Theoritically heat transfer coefficient:1/Uth= 1/hi + (Di/Do).(1/ho)

Observation table:
 SI.No. Water flow Steam Time Temperature
rate (lph) condensed (min) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
(ml)
Filmwis 1
e 2
Dropwis 1
e 2

Results: Do calculations and report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions:Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained for different conditions.
Precautions:

1. Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the steam generator.
2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
3. Never allow steam to enter the cylinder unless the water is flowing through condenser.
4. Always ensure that the equipment is earthed properly before switching on the supply.

Questions:

1. What is condensation? How does it occur?

2. What is the difference between film and drop wise condensation? Which is a more effective mechanism of
heat transfer?
3. Consider film condensation on a vertical plate. Will the heat flux be higher at the top or at the bottom of the
plate? Why?
 Experiment Number:11
Title of the Experiment: Calibration of Thermocouples
Date of the Experiment:

1. Objective

Find the relation between the thermal electromotive force (E) generated by the thermocouple
and the temperature. Draw the graphs E1 = f1 (t) and t1 = f1 (t). Calculate the absolute error of
the thermocouple.

2. Necessary equipment

1. Electric furnace
2. Etalon thermocouple (S-type) sdgf
3. The thermocouple (K-type) for calibration
4. Voltmeters
5. The resistance thermometer
6. Extension cords for thermocouples
7. Thermostat for thermocouples cold junction
8. Thermocouple reference tables for K-type and S type

3. The experimental apparatus and basics

Figure 1.1. Thermocouple calibration apparatus scheme: 1 - a metal block; 2 – electric

furnace;3 - etalon thermocouple; 4 - resistance thermometer; 5 - voltmeter; 6 - thermostat for
thermocouples cold junction; 7 - extension cords for thermocouples; 8 - thermocouple for
calibration; 9 – electric heating coil; 10 - connecting wires

1
In order to achieve the traceability and reliability measuring instruments and sensors should
be controlled by verification, validation and calibration. Calibration in measurement
technology and metrology is the process of comparison of measurement values delivered by
a device under test with a calibration standard of known accuracy. Calibration of working
measuring instruments is not mandatory.

Calibration of the instrument can be defined as finding the dependence between the input
and output of the measuring instrument and finding the deviation of measurements. The input
for thermocouples is the measured temperature and the output is the thermal electromotive
force generated by thermocouple. The results are presented as a table, chart or formulas. The
aim of this laboratory work is to calibrate an industrially manufactured standard
thermocouple. The manufacturer of the industrial thermocouple must ensure compliance to
standard that gives the relation between the measured temperature and electromotive force
within allowable tolerances.

Relation between the measured temperature and the thermal electromotive force generated
by standard thermocouple is given in tables. Thermocouples from serial production are not
individually calibrated. The aim of this laboratory work is to experimentally find out the
relation between the measured temperature and the thermal electromotive force generated
by the real thermocouple. The experiment allows determining a deviation of the results from
the values in the thermocouple standard table.

High precision and highly stable type S thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium - 10% / Platinum) is
used in this work to measure correctly the actual temperature. Any kind of standard or non-
standard thermocouple can be any calibrated. K-type (Chromel /Alumel) thermocouple is
calibrated in this work.

Hot junctions of the both thermocouples, 3 and 8 on Figure 1.1 are inside the metal block 1
situated inside the furnace 2. The function of the metal block is to prevent the temperature
unevenness inside it enabling the both hot junctions to maintain the equal temperature.
Thermocouple wires are coming out from the furnace through sealed opening. Thermocouple
cold junctions are moved away from the oven into thermostat 6, where the cold junction
temperature is measured with resistance thermometer 4. From thermostat the
thermocouples are connected with voltmeters 5 with copper extension wires 7. Temperature
of the furnace is controlled with PID controller.

4. Procedure of experiment

Procedure of experiment will be given by supervisor prior the experiment.

5. Processing of the Experimental Data

The measurement results are compiled in Table 1.1. Draw the graphs E1 = f1 (t) and t1 = f1 (t)
based on experimental results.

The measured thermal electromotive force has to be converted into temperature using the
thermocouple reference tables. The tables are made on condition that the cold junction
temperatures are held at 0°C. If the cold junction is at the different temperature the measured
electromotive force is different (E' = E - E, mV). To find the real temperature the correction
to measured electromotive force has to be implemented based on the temperature of cold
junction measured in the thermostat. The correction E can be found from thermocouple
tables also. The procedure for this conversion is described in Appendix A and thermocouple
reference table for S-type thermocouple is in Appendix B and for K-type thermocouple in
Appendix C.

The temperature measured by etalon thermocouple is taken as the real temperature in the
furnace. K-type thermocouple wires are made in two grades of purity: Standard Limits of Error
(accuracy the greater of ± 2.2°C or ±0.75% of reading) and Special Limits of Error (accuracy the
greater of ± 1.1°C or 0.4% of reading).

The absolute error of the thermocouple to be calibrated can be found

t = t - t1 °C (1.1)

where t - the oven temperature measured with etalon thermocouple, °C;

t1 – temperature measured with thermocouple to be calibrated, ° C,

and

EmV = E0 - E1 (1.1)

where E0 – electromotive force that the thermocouple to be calibrated should generate at

furnace temperature measured by etalon thermocouple, if working correctly
from K –type table, mV;
E1 – electromotive force measured by the thermocouple to be calibrated, mV.

The report of the laboratory work compares the absolute error calculated from measurement
results with allowable error of the K-type thermocouple grades and draws conclusions is this
thermocouple belong in Standard Limits of Error or Special Limits of Error grade.
Table 1.1 Table for measurement data and results
Etalon thermocouple Thermocouple to be Thermocouple cold Absolute error
(S-type) calibrated (K-type) junction

Correction
Actual electromotive force

Actual electromotive force

S-type K-type
Reading number

Temperature tkl
Temperature t1
Temperature t

EmV = E0– E1
E1 = E'1 +E1
Reading E'1
Reading E'

.E = E'+E

 = t – t1
E E1

mV mV °C mV mV °C °C mV mV °C mV