Ques on 1: Given U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} 5.

Countable Set: A countable set is a set whose elements can be listed one by
A = {2, 4, 6} one, even if it takes forever. So, all finite sets and some infinite sets are countable.
B = {1, 3, 5, 7} Example: The set of all even numbers → {2, 4, 6, 8, ...}
C = {6, 7}
(a) A' ∩ B 6. Uncountable Set: An uncountable set is a set that has so many elements that
A' = U - A = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9} we cannot list or count them, even if we tried forever.
A' ∩ B = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 7} = {1, 3, 5, 7} Example: The set of all real numbers between 0 and 1 → (0, 1)
(b) (A ∪ B) - C
A ∪ B = {2, 4, 6} ∪ {1, 3, 5, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} 7. Universal Set: The universal set is the set that contains all elements related to a
(A ∪ B) - C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} - {6, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} specific discussion or problem. It is usually denoted by UUU.
(c) (A ∪ C)' Example: If you are talking about all digits, then U={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
A ∪ C = {2, 4, 6} ∪ {6, 7} = {2, 4, 6, 7}
(A ∪ C)' = U - (A ∪ C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} - {2, 4, 6, 7} = {0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9} 8. Power Set: The power set of any set is the set of all possible subsets of that set,
including the empty set and the set itself.
(d) (A ∩ U) ∩ (B ∪ C)
Example: If A={1,2}, then Power Set = P(A)={∅,{1},{2},{1,2}}
A ∩ U = {2, 4, 6} ∩ U = {2, 4, 6}
B ∪ C = {1, 3, 5, 7} ∪ {6, 7} = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}
9. Equivalent Set: Two sets are called equivalent if they have the same number of
(A ∩ U) ∩ (B ∪ C) = {2, 4, 6} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} = {6}
elements, regardless of whether the elements are the same.
Types of Sets Example: A={1,2,3},B={a,b,c}, B={a,b,c} → Both have 3 elements → Equivalent
1. Null Set (∅ or {}): A null set is a set that contains no elements at all. It is also
called an empty set. Even though it has no elements, it is s ll a valid set in 10. Equal Set: Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
mathema cs. Example: The set of students in a class who are 200 years old → ∅ elements, regardless of the order in which the elements are wri en.
Example: A={2,3,4}, B={4,3,2} → Equal sets
2. Singleton Set: A singleton set is a set that contains exactly one element. It is the
smallest non-empty set and is useful when we want to represent a single unique 11. Subset: A set A is a subset of another set B if every element of A is also
item. Example: The set of the capital of India → {“New Delhi”} present in B. It is wri en as A⊆BA Example: A={1,2},B={1,2,3} → A⊆BA

3. Finite Set: A finite set is a set that has a definite number of elements which can 12. Proper Subset: A proper subset is a subset that does not contain all elements
be counted. You can know the exact number of elements just by lis ng them. of the original set. It must have fewer elements than the main set.
Example: The set of vowels in the English alphabet → {a, e, i, o, u} Example: A={1,2},B={1,2,3} → A⊂BA

4. Infinite Set: An infinite set has unlimited elements, which means we cannot 13. Superset: A set B is called a superset of set A if B contains all the elements of
count all its elements because they go on forever. A. It is wri en as B⊇A. Example: A={2,3},B={1,2,3,4} → B⊇AB
Example: The set of natural numbers → {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
Ques on 2: List all par ons of sets Types of Rela ons
Rules to create Par ons 1. Empty Rela on: A rela on where no element of the set is related to any other
 No empty set. element. Example: R = {} on set A = {1, 2, 3}
 Union of all sets must be equal to actual set.
 Intersec on of any two sets should be {} 2. Universal Rela on: A rela on where every element is related to every other
(a) A = {1, 2, 3} element (including itself). Example: R = A × A for set A = {1, 2}
Par ons of A are:
1. {{1}, {2}, {3}} 3. Reflexive Rela on: A rela on is reflexive if every element is related to itself.
2. {{1, 2}, {3}} Example: (1,1), (2,2), (3,3) must be in R for A = {1, 2, 3}
3. {{1, 3}, {2}}
4. {{2, 3}, {1}} 4. Irreflexive Rela on: A rela on is irreflexive if no element is related to itself.
5. {{1, 2, 3}} Example: (1,1), (2,2) should not be in R

(b) B = {a, b, c, d}: 5. Symmetric Rela on: A rela on is symmetric if (a, b) in R implies (b, a) is also in
Par ons of B are more in number. Here is the complete list: R. Example: If (2,3) is in R, then (3,2) must also be in R
1. {{a}, {b}, {c}, {d}}
2. {{a, b}, {c}, {d}} 6. Asymmetric Rela on: A rela on is asymmetric if (a, b) in R implies (b, a) is not
3. {{a, c}, {b}, {d}} in R, and also no element is related to itself.
4. {{a, d}, {b}, {c}} Example: If (1,2) is in R, then (2,1) must not be in R
5. {{b, c}, {a}, {d}}
6. {{b, d}, {a}, {c}} 7. An symmetric Rela on: A rela on is an symmetric if (a, b) and (b, a) in R
7. {{c, d}, {a}, {b}} implies a = b. Example: If (2,3) and (3,2) are both in R, then it’s not an symmetric
8. {{a, b, c}, {d}}
9. {{a, b, d}, {c}} 8. Transi ve Rela on: A rela on is transi ve if (a, b) and (b, c) in R implies (a, c) is
10. {{a, c, d}, {b}} also in R. Example: If (1,2) and (2,3) are in R, then (1,3) must be in R
11. {{b, c, d}, {a}}
12. {{a, b}, {c, d}} 9. Equivalence Rela on: A rela on is an equivalence rela on if it is reflexive,
13. {{a, c}, {b, d}} symmetric, and transi ve. Example: "is equal to" is an equivalence rela on
14. {{a, d}, {b, c}}
15. {{a, b, c, d}} 10. Par al Order Rela on
A rela on is a par al order if it is reflexive, an symmetric, and transi ve.
Example: "less than or equal to" (≤) on numbers
Ques on 5: Given set: A = {1, 3, 5}
Rela on R: Y = X + 2 Rela on S: X < Y
R = {(1, 3), (3, 5)} S = {(1, 3), (1, 5), (3, 5)}

(a) Find RoS (R composed with S):

(x, z) is in RoS if there exists a y such that (x, y) is in S and (y, z) is in R.
From S: (1, 3) and from R: (3, 5) -> (1, 5) is in RoS.
No other pairs sa sfy the condi on.
RoS = {(1, 5)}
(b) Find SoR (S composed with R):
(x, z) is in SoR if there exists a y such that (x, y) is in R and (y, z) is in S.
From R: (1, 3) and from S: (3, 5) -> (1, 5) is in SoR.
No other pairs sa sfy the condi on.
Ques on 5: f(x) = ax2 + bx + 2
SoR = {(1, 5)}
f(1) = ax2 + bx + 2 = 3
Using Diagram:
a12 + b1 + 2 = 3
a+b=3-2
a + b = 1 ----------- (i)
f(4) = ax2 + bx + 2 = 42
a42 + b4 + 2 = 42
16a + 4b = 42 - 2
16a + 4b = 40
4 (4a + b) = 40
4a + b = 10 ----------- (ii)
a + b = 1 (From equa on)
a = 1 - b ----------- (iii)
Put the value of a from (iii) in eq. (ii)
4(1-b) + b = 10
4 - 4b + b = 10
4 - 3b = 10
-3b = 10 - 4
-3b = 6
b = -2
1. Semigroup 4. Subgroup
A semigroup is a non-empty set with a binary opera on that is associa ve. A subgroup is a subset of a group that is itself a group under the same opera on.
That means: For all a, b, c in the set, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) Example:
Example: Group G = Z (integers under addi on)
Set of natural numbers under addi on: Subset H = { ..., -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, ... }
N = {1, 2, 3, ...} H is a subgroup of G because it sa sfies all group proper es.
Addi on is associa ve, so (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3)
5. Ring
2. Monoid: A ring is a set with two binary opera ons, usually called addi on and
A monoid is a semigroup that also has an iden ty element. mul plica on, sa sfying:
So it sa sfies: (i) The set is an abelian group under addi on
(i) Closure (ii) The set is a semigroup under mul plica on
(ii) Associa vity (iii) Mul plica on is distribu ve over addi on
(iii) Iden ty element e such that a * e = e * a = a Example:
Example: Set of integers Z under addi on and mul plica on:
Set of non-nega ve integers under addi on: Addi on is associa ve, commuta ve, has iden ty (0), and every element has an
M = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} inverse.
0 is the iden ty element since a + 0 = a Mul plica on is associa ve.
And distribu ve laws hold.
3. Group
A group is a monoid where every element has an inverse.
So it sa sfies:
(i) Closure
(ii) Associa vity
(iii) Iden ty
(iv) Inverse
Example:
Set of integers Z under addi on:
Iden ty = 0
Inverse of 5 is -5 because 5 + (-5) = 0
Given: Q. Draw a Hasse Diagram for the poset (P(S), ⊆),
Set X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} where P(S) is the power set of set S = {1, 2, 3}
Rela on R on X: (x, y) ∈ R if x divides y Set S = {1, 2, 3}
This is a par ally ordered set (POSET) based on divisibility. Power Set P(S) = all subsets of S:
 {}
(a) Construct Hasse Diagram  {1}, {2}, {3}
Steps:  {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}
1. List all pairs (x, y) such that x divides y and x ≠ y  {1, 2, 3}
2. Draw elements as nodes
3. Draw edges (lines) only for immediate rela onships (covering rela ons) So, P(S) =
{ {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} }
(b) Maximal and Minimal Elements
 Minimal elements: Elements that no other 8., Show that set of all divisors of 70 form a La ce.
element divides (except themselves)
→ 2 and 3 (nothing in the set divides them except Step 1: Find all divisors of 70
themselves) The divisors of 70 are:
 Maximal elements: Elements that do not divide D = {1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 35, 70}
any other elements in the set
→ 24 and 36 (no other element in the set is Step 2: Check if it's a La ce
divisible by them except themselves) A POSET is a la ce if every pair of elements
has:
(c) Is POSET a la ce?
This POSET is not a La ce. Because, Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) = greatest common divisor (GCD)
1. There is no meet for {2, 3} Least Upper Bound (LUB) = least common mul ple (LCM), but within the set
2. There is no Join for {24, 36} Let's take a few examples:
GLB of 10 and 14 = GCD(10, 14) = 2 → 2 ∈ D
LUB of 10 and 14 = LCM(10, 14) = 70 → 70 ∈ D
GLB of 5 and 7 = 1 → ∈ D
LUB of 5 and 7 = 35 → ∈ D
GLB of 2 and 35 = 1 → ∈ D
LUB of 2 and 35 = 70 → ∈ D
Since every pair of elements has both a GLB and a LUB within the set,
this POSET is a la ce.
9. Use K-map to simplify the following expression: 8. A tree has 2n ver ces of degree 1, 3n ver ces of degree 2 and n ver ces of
X = A'BC'D' + ABC'D' + A'BCD' + ABCD' degree 3. Determine the number of ver ces and edge in the tree.

Simplify F(A, B, C, D) = ∑m(0,2,7,8,10,15) using K-map.

1. Defini on of Graph
A graph is a collec on of ver ces (or nodes) and edges (or lines). 5. Path
It is used to show rela onships or connec ons between objects. A path is a walk in which no vertex or edge is repeated (except possibly the first
Example: and last in case of a cycle).
Ver ces = {A, B, C}, Edges = {(A, B), (B, C)} Example: A-B-C-D is a path.

2. Types of Graph 6. Circuit

Here are the main types of graphs: A circuit is a closed path, meaning it starts and ends at the same vertex.
 Simple Graph: A graph with no loops or mul ple edges between the same Ver ces and edges are not repeated, except the start and end.
pair of ver ces. Example: A-B-C-A is a circuit.
 Mul Graph: A graph with mul ple edges between the same pair of
ver ces. 7. Regular Graph
 Loop Graph: A graph where an edge starts and ends at the same vertex A regular graph is a graph where each vertex has the same number of edges
(called a loop). (degree).
 Complete Graph: A graph in which every pair of ver ces is connected by If every vertex has degree k, it is called a k-regular graph.
exactly one edge. Example: A graph where every vertex is connected to exactly 3 others is a 3-
 Null Graph: A graph with no edges. regular graph.
 Connected Graph: There is a path between every pair of ver ces.
 Disconnected Graph: Not all ver ces are connected. 8. Tree
 Weighted Graph: A graph where each edge has a numerical value (called A tree is a special type of graph that is connected and has no cycles.
weight). There is exactly one path between any two ver ces in a tree.
Example: A family tree, folder structure in a computer.
3. Directed and Undirected Graph
 Directed Graph (Digraph): Edges have a direc on, represented by arrows.
Example: (A → B) means a direc on from A to B.
 Undirected Graph: Edges have no direc on.
Example: (A, B) means A is connected to B and vice versa.

4. Walk
A walk is a sequence of ver ces and edges, where each edge connects the
previous and next vertex.
It may repeat ver ces and edges.
Example: A-B-C-B-D is a walk.