Anino, Reynalyn A.

11 - HUMSS 1
LESSON 1: Ancient Astronomy
The Greeks are very much noted for their major contributions in different fields. They
were not only great philosophers. They were great scientists and mathematicians as well.It
was in Greece that the Golden Age of early astronomy was centered. Being philosophers, the
Greeks used philosophical arguments to explain the natural events happening around them
including the movements of the stars and other heavenly bodies. But they were also observers.
They made use of their observational data to explain certain events. They were the ones who
measured the sizes and the distances of the sun and the moon using the basics of geometry
and trigonometry which they also developed. The early Greeks had a geocentric view of the
earth. For them, it was the center of the universe; hence, a motionless sphere. The sun, moon,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn orbited the Earth. The Greeks also believed that stars
traveled daily around the earth. However, they all stayed in a transparent, hollow sphere located
beyond the planets. They called this sphere as the celestial sphere.
Key Terms Around 500 B.C., most Greeks believed that
● Oblate spheroid: the shape of the the Earth was round, not flat. It was
Earth. It has bulging equator and Pythagoras and his pupils who were first to
squeezed poles. propose a spherical Earth.
● Solstice: either of the two times in the In 500 to 430 B.C., Anaxagoras further
year, the summer solstice and the supported Pythagoras' proposal through his
winter solstice, when the sun reaches observations of the shadows that the Earth
its highest or lowest point in the sky at cast on the Moon during a lunar
noon, marked by the longest and eclipse. He observed that during a lunar
shortest days. eclipse, the Earth's shadow was reflected
● Eclipse: an obscuring of the light from on the Moon's surface. The shadow reflected
one celestial body by the passage of was circular.
another between it and the observer Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several
or between it and its source of arguments for a spherical Earth which
illumination. included the positions of the North Star, the
● Heliocentrism: the astronomical model shape of the Moon and the Sun, and
in which the Earth and planets revolve the disappearance of the ships when they sail
around the Sun. over the horizon.
● Geocentrism: any theory of the North Star
structure of the solar system (or the When the Greeks traveled to places nearer
universe) in which Earth is assumed the equator, like Egypt, they noticed that the
to be at the center of it all. North Star is closer to the horizon.
The Shape of the Sun and the Moon
Aristotle argued that if the Moon and the Sun
were both spherical, then perhaps,
the Earth was also spherical.
Disappearing Ships
If the Earth was flat, then a ship traveling
away from an observer should become
smaller and smaller until it disappeared.
However, the Greeks observed that the
ship became smaller and then its hull
disappeared first before the sail as if it was
being enveloped by the water until it
 completely disappeared.
The Size of the Spherical Earth
Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical Earth and its circumference through
calculations. It was Eratosthenes who gave the most accurate size during their time. While
he was working at the Library of Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received correspondence
from Syene in Southern Egypt which stated that a vertical object did not cast any shadow at
noontime during the summer solstice. But this was not the case in Alexandria where, at noon
time during the summer solstice, a vertical object still casts a shadow. These observations could
only mean that the Sun, during this time in Alexandria, was not directly overhead. Eratosthenes
then determined the angle the Sun made with the vertical direction by measuring the shadow
that a vertical stick cast. He found out that in Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle of 7.2°
from the vertical while 0° in Syene. To explain the difference, he hypothesized that the
light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and the Earth is curved. From his
measurements, he computed the circumference of the Earth to be approximately 250 000
stadia (a stadium is a unit of measurement used to describe the size of a typical stadium
at the time), about 40 000 kilometers.
a. Anaxagoras e. Aristarchus
Anaxagoras was able to explain what causes Aristarchus is the very first Greek to profess
the phases of the moon. According to him, the heliocentric view. The word helios means
the moon shone only by reflected sunlight. sun; centric means centered. This
Since it is a sphere, only half of it illuminated heliocentric view considered the sun as the
at a time. This illuminated part that is visible center of the universe. He learned that the
from the earth changes periodically. sun was many time farther than the moon
b. Eudoxus and that it was much larger than the earth. He
Eudoxus proposed a system of fixed spheres. also made an attempt to calculate the
He believed that the Sun, the moon, the five distance of the sun and the moon by using
known planets and the stars were attached to geometric principles. He based his
thesebspheres which carried the heavenly calculations on his estimated diameters of the
bodies while they revolved around the earth and moon, and expressed distance in
stationary Earth. terms of diameter. However, the
c. Aristotle measurements he got werevery small and
Aristotle was a student of Plato. For him, the there were a lot of observational errors.
earth is spherical in shape since it always f. Eratosthenes
casts a curved shadow when it eclipses the The first successful attempt to determine the
moon. He also believed that the earth was size of the earth was made by him. He did
the center of the universe. The planets and this by applying geometric principles. He
stars were concentric, crystalline spheres observed the angles of the noonday sun in
centered on the earth. two Egyptian cities that were almost opposite
d. Claudius Ptolemy each other- Syene (now Aswan) in the south
He believed that the earth was the center of and Alexandria in the north. He assumed they
the universe. His Ptolemic were in the same longitude.
Model claimed that the planets moved in a g. Hipparchus
complicated system of circles. Hipparchus is considered as the greatest of
This geocentric model also became known as the early Greek astronomers. He observed
the Ptolemic System. and compared the brightness of 850 stars
and arranged them into order of brightness or
magnitude. He developed a method for
 predicting the times of lunar eclipses to
within a few hours.
The Ptolemic Model
Claudius Ptolemy developed a model that was able to explain the observable
motions of the planets.

According to the Ptolemic Mode, the sun, the moon, and the other planets move in circular
orbits around the earth. However, if observed night after night, these planets move slightly
eastward among the stars. At a certain point, the planet appears to stop then moves in the
opposite direction for some time; after which it will resume its eartward motion. This westward
drift of the planets is called retrograde motion.
To justify his earth-centered model using retrograde motion, he further explained that the
planets orbited on small circles, called epicycles, revolving around large circles called
deferents.

Aristotle’s Conclusion
Aristotle lived in ancient Greece more than three hundred years before the
Common Era (or Before Christ). In those days, most people believed that many gods
ruled the universe.A happy god, for instance, might allow an abundant harvest while an angry
god would show his fury with storms or earthquakes. Aristotle decided he could understand the
world through observation and by using logic and reason. Later scientists called Aristotle the
Father of Natural Science because centuries after the ancient scholar’s death, his methods
formed the basis of the scientific method. Most people in Aristotle’s time believed the earth was
flat, but he did not agree. He studied and used scientific methods to prove that his conclusion
was correct. Firstly, Aristotle considered the position of the North Star. The farther north
you journeyed, the closer the North Star seemed to move to the middle of the sky. But if
someone were to travel south of what we now call the equator, the North Star could not
be seen at all. He also watched ships sailing into port. He noticed that at a distance, he
could see the tops of their sails before he saw the rest of the ship. Aristotle deduced that this
was because of the curvature of the earth. And lastly he observed the shadow cast
during eclipses.
LESSON 2: Examples of Astronomical Phenomena Before the Advent of Telescopes
For thousands of years, humans have looked at the night sky and wondered about
the stars. With only the unaided eye, they neither saw nor dreamed that the stars are greater in
number than all the grains of sand on all the beaches of the world! Nor did they realize that the
sun is a star – simply the nearest star to us in the universe. Probably the most fascinating was
the moon, which when full was perceived as a flat circular disk rather than as a
three-dimensional sphere we now know it to be.
The roots of astronomy reach back to prehistoric times when humans first noted
stars in the night sky. The earliest astronomers divided the night sky into groups of stars called
constellations. The names of the constellations are mainly a carryover from the names assigned
by early Greek, Babylonian and Egyptian astronomers. The grouping of stars and the
significance given to them varied from culture to culture. In some cultures, the constellations
stimulated story-telling and the creation of great myths. In some cases, the constellations
honored great heroes like Hercules and Orion or served as navigational aids for travelers and
sailors. On the other hand, some people believe that constellations provided a guide for planting
and harvesting crops for they were seen to move periodically in the sky, in concert with the
seasons. Charts of these periodic movements became some of the first calendars. Stars were
thought to be points of light on great revolving celestial sphere having the earth as its
center. Positions of the sphere were believed to affect earthly events and so were carefully
measured. Keen observations and logical reasoning gave birth to both Astrology and later, to
Science.
Astronomy Defined Rising and Setting of the Sun
Astronomy is the science of the universe Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a
outside of our planet. This is the branch of primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon,
physical science dealing with heavenly in systematically observing the motion of the
bodies. It has resulted in many practical sun. By looking at the shadows that the
inventions, ideas, including calendars, gnomon casts, they were able to observe that
navigational techniques, laws of motion, the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky,
engineering of products and an increased reaches its highest point in midday, and sets
understanding of energy and weather. Some in the western part of the sky.
Astronomical Terms for Students Phases of the Moon
Moon: A natural object that orbits a larger A moon, also called a satellite, is a relatively
object. small object that is orbiting around a
Eclipse: when one celestial body such as a planet. Earth’s moon is the fifth biggest moon
moon or planet moves into the shadow of in the solar system. As we will see,
another celestial body. several other planets in the solar system also
Solar eclipse: a type of eclipse that occurs have moons. On average, the distance
when the Moon passes between the Sun and between the Earth and the moon is 384,000
Earth, and the Moon fully or partially blocks kilometres. To give you an idea of its
the light from the Sun. size, the moon is about four times smaller
Lunar Phase: one of the cyclically recurring than the width of the Earth.
apparent forms of the moon The gravity of the Earth pulls on the moon
Gibbous: the figure of the moon that is more such that one face of the moon is always
 than half full, looking swollen on one side facing us, and we can never see the other
Crescent: the figure of the moon that side. Just like the Earth, half of the moon
appears as a curve with pointy ends is always lit by sunlight and the other half is in
Waxing: growing; describes the moon when shadow. As the moon orbits the
the illuminated portion is increasing Earth, we see a different phase of the moon.
Waning: shrinking; describes the moon when It takes 27 days, 7 hours, and 43
the illuminated portion is decreasing minutes for our Moon to complete one full
Planet: In the solar system, a planet is a orbit around Earth. This is called the
large round object that orbits the Sun and has sidereal month, and is measured by our
cleared out most of the other objects in its Moon's position relative to distant “fixed”
orbit. stars. However, it takes our Moon about 29.5
Solar System: The Sun and all of the days to complete one cycle of phases
planets, comets, etc. that revolve around it. (from full Moon to full Moon).
The first half of the moon cycle begins with the new moon (totally dark; we see nothing) and
climaxes with the full moon. The new moon phase occurs when the sun, moon and earth are
lined up, with the moon in the middle.
New Moon. A new moon appears only when the moon is on the side of the earth most directly
in line with the sun. There is no illumination on the earth’s side, so it is also sometimes called
the dark moon. If it were visible, it would ride very high in summer and very low in winter. It
reaches an intermediate height in spring and fall. Within a few days after the dark moon, a thin
waxing crescent moon may be seen low in the western sky shortly after sunset.
First quarter. Half the side of the moon facing the earth appears illuminated. It rises about
noon, reaches its high point for the day at sundown, and sets near midnight. It ides low in fall
and high in spring and takes a middle course during summer and winter.
Full Moon. The whole side of the moon is now illuminated to viewers from the earth. The full
moon rises in the east as the sun sets in the west. It stays up all night long, reaching its highest
point about midnight. In summer, it is as low in the sky as the sun is at noon in midwinter. In
winter, its apparent height is comparable with that of the sun at noon in summer. In spring and
fall it rides at an intermediate height.
The full moon closest to the autumnal equinox, known as the harvest moon, rises with
the least delay. It provides light for late-working harvesters. The following month's full moon,
called the hunter's moon, also rises early. The third quarter moon rises around midnight,
reaches its highest point at dawn, and sets around noon. It follows a high path in fall, low in
spring, and a middle course in summer and winter. The crescent moon gradually becomes
thinner, known as the waning crescent or old moon, approaching the new moon phase.
Sometimes, the dimly illuminated rest of the moon's disc can be seen within the horns of the
crescent, known as earthshine.

ECLIPSE
There are two types of eclipses: solar eclipses and lunar eclipses. During a solar eclipse,
the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, casting a shadow on the Earth's surface. This
blocks the Sun's light, resulting in a temporary darkening of the sky. A total solar eclipse occurs
when the Moon completely covers the Sun, revealing its outer atmosphere called the corona.
On the other hand, a lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes between the Sun and the
Moon. The Earth's shadow falls on the Moon, causing it to darken or turn a reddish hue. Lunar
eclipses are visible from anywhere on the Earth's night side. Both types of eclipses are
fascinating celestial events that occur when the Sun, Moon, and Earth align in specific ways,
creating captivating displays in the sky.

LESSON 3: Modern Astronomy

Throughout history, scientists have made significant strides in understanding the
mysteries of the night sky. Initially, a geocentric view prevailed, with Earth considered the center
of the universe. However, over time, this perspective evolved into our current understanding of
an expanding universe with countless galaxies. Several influential scientists contributed to this
transformation. Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the geocentric model by proposing a
heliocentric system. Tycho Brahe meticulously observed and recorded celestial phenomena.
Johannes Kepler formulated laws of planetary motion based on Brahe's data. Galileo Galilei
made groundbreaking astronomical observations with the telescope. Isaac Newton's
work on gravity and motion provided a foundation for understanding celestial
mechanics. Together, these scientists revolutionized astronomy and paved the way for
modern discoveries.
Some Astronomical Terms for Students Tycho Brahe
astronomical unit (AU) Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and
the unit of length defined as the average nobleman who made accurate observations
distance between Earth and the Sun; this of the movement of celestial bodies in an
distance is about 1.5 × 108 kilometers or 1.5 observatory built for him by King Frederick II
x 1011 metres of Denmark in 1576. He was able to invent
eccentricity different astronomical instruments, with the
in an ellipse, the ratio of the distance between help of his assistants, and made an extensive
the foci to the major axis study of the solar system. He was able to
ellipse determine the position of 777 fixed stars
a closed curve for which the sum of the accurately.
distances from any point on the ellipse to two Johannes Kepler
points inside (called the foci) is always the When King Frederick II died, and the
same successor did not fully support Brahe’s work,
focus (plural: foci) one of two fixed points he moved to Prague in 1599 where he was
inside an ellipse from which the sum of the supported by Emperor Rudolf II and worked
distances to any point on the ellipse is as an imperial mathematician. Emperor
constant Rudolf II recommended Johannes Kepler to
Kepler’s first law work for him as an assistant. Kepler was born
each planet moves around the Sun in an orbit to a poor German family and studied as a
that is an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus of scholar at the University of Tübingen in 1589.
the ellipse Brahe and Kepler's Work
Kepler’s second law Brahe and Kepler had an unsteady working
the straight line joining a planet and the Sun relationship. Kepler was Brahe's assistant.
sweeps out equal areas in space in equal However, Brahe mistrusted Kepler with his
intervals of time astronomical data in fear of being shadowed
Kepler’s third law by his assistant. Brahe assigned to Kepler the
the square of a planet’s orbital period is interpretation of his observations of Mars,
directly proportional to the cube of the whose movement did not match Brahe’s
semimajor axis of its orbit calculations. Kepler was tasked to figure out
major axis what path Mars followed as it revolved
 the maximum diameter of an ellipse around the Sun. It was believed by many
orbit scientists that Brahe gave this task to Kepler
the path of an object that is in revolution to keep him occupied and left Brahe to
about another object or point develop his laws of planetary motion.Kepler's
orbital period (P) Discoveries from Brahe's Data Kepler
the time it takes an object to travel once postulated that there must be a force from the
around the Sun Sun that moves the planets. He was able to
orbital speed conclude that this force would explain the
the speed at which an object (usually a orbit of Mars and the Earth, including all the
planet) orbits around the mass of another other planets, moved fastest when it is
object; in the case of a planet, the speed at nearest from the
which each planet moves along its ellipse Sun and moved slowest when it is farthest
semimajor axis from the Sun. Eventually, Brahe decided to
half of the major axis of a conic section, such give all his data to Kepler hoping that he
as an ellipse would be able to prove his Tychonic system
and put together new tables of astronomical
data. .

The Rudolphine Tables, named after the Roman emperor Rudolf II, were a renowned
astronomical table that played a crucial role in determining the positions of planets for the past
1000 years and the next 1000 years. This table, considered the most accurate of its time, held
immense significance in the field of astronomy. Following the death of Tycho Brahe in 1601,
Emperor Rudolf II appointed Johannes Kepler as the new imperial mathematician. Kepler
inherited Brahe's extensive collection, including his writings, instruments, and the Rudolphine
Tables. Leveraging Brahe's meticulous observations, Kepler formulated his groundbreaking laws
of planetary motion: the law of ellipses, the law of equal areas, and the law of harmonies. These
laws fundamentally reshaped our understanding of celestial mechanics and propelled the field
of astronomy forward.

Johannes Kepler, one of the most influential astronomers in history, formulated three laws that
describe the motion of planets around the Sun.

Kepler's first law, known as the law of ellipses, states that the orbit of a planet is an ellipse with
the Sun at one of its foci. This law challenged the prevailing belief that planetary orbits were
perfect circles.
Kepler's second law, the law of equal areas, states that a line that connects a planet to the
Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time. This implies that a planet moves faster
when it is closer to the Sun and slower when it is farther away.
Kepler's third law, the harmonic law, establishes a mathematical relationship between a
planet's orbital period and its average distance from the Sun. It states that the square of a
planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the Sun. These
laws laid the foundation for our understanding of planetary motion and greatly contributed to the
development of Isaac Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation.
LESSON 4: The Aristotelian and Galilean Conceptions of Vertical, Horizontal, and
Projectile Motions
Motion is the fundamental process of changing position or location. It permeates
all aspects of life, from the coordinated movements of our muscles enabling us to walk, run, and
dance, to the rhythmic pumping of our hearts distributing blood throughout our bodies. The
exploration of celestial motion dates back to ancient civilizations such as Sumeria and Egypt,
but it was the Greeks who first systematically and extensively studied heavenly bodies. Initially,
they held a geocentric view, with the Earth at the center of the universe. However, Nicolaus
Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model, proposing that the Earth and other planets
revolve around the Sun in circular orbits. These early studies laid the groundwork for the
revolutionary work of Galileo Galilei, an Italian physicist who made significant contributions to
the field of science.
Aristotle's concept of motion, particularly Galileo Galilei, a renowned Italian scientist
vertical motion, horizontal motion, and and astronomer, made significant
projectile motion, was based on his contributions to the understanding of motion
observations and philosophical reasoning during the 17th century. His concepts of
during ancient times. vertical motion, horizontal motion, and
projectile motion challenged the
According to Aristotle, vertical motion prevailing ideas of his time and laid the
referred to the movement of objects either groundwork for modern physics.
upward or downward in a straight line relative
to the Earth's surface. He believed that all Galileo's concept of vertical motion was a
objects naturally had a "natural place" in the departure from Aristotle's view. He conducted
universe, with heavier objects tending to experiments and made careful observations
move downward toward the center of the to challenge the notion that objects of
Earth, and lighter objects moving upward different weights fall at different rates. Galileo
toward the heavens. This concept of vertical argued that in the absence of air resistance,
motion was closely tied to his theory of the all objects, regardless of their weight, would
four elements (earth, water, air, and fire) and fall with the same acceleration due to gravity.
their natural tendencies. This revolutionary idea was a key element in
the development of the concept of free fall
Horizontal motion, on the other hand, and the understanding of motion in a
referred to the movement of objects along a gravitational field.
horizontal plane, parallel to the Earth's
surface. Aristotle recognized that objects Regarding horizontal motion, Galileo
could move horizontally through various recognized that objects in motion tend to
means, such as pushing or pulling, but he did remain in motion unless acted upon by an
not provide a detailed explanation for this external force, as described by Newton's first
type of motion. His focus was primarily on law of motion. Galileo's experiments with
vertical motion and the behavior of objects in inclined planes allowed him to study the
relation to the Earth's gravitational pull. motion of objects rolling or sliding along a
surface. He showed that the horizontal
Projectile motion, according to Aristotle, component of motion is independent of the
involved the motion of objects projected into vertical component, and objects would
the air at an angle. He observed that maintain a constant velocity unless acted
 projectiles, such as arrows or rocks, would upon by external forces like friction.
follow a curved path called a parabola.
Aristotle believed that the upward component Projectile motion was another area where
of motion was caused by the inherent nature Galileo made significant contributions. He
of the projectile, striving to reach its "natural studied the motion of projectiles, such as
place" in the heavens, while the downward cannonballs or projectiles launched from
component was influenced by gravity pulling inclined planes, and formulated key
the object toward the Earth. principles. Galileo demonstrated that the
horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile
It is important to note that Aristotle's are independent of each other. He showed
understanding of motion was limited by the that a projectile follows a curved path called a
observational tools and scientific knowledge parabola, with its horizontal motion being
available during his time. His concepts of uniform and its vertical motion being
motion were based on philosophical influenced by gravity. Galileo's insights into
reasoning rather than mathematical analysis, projectile motion laid the foundation for the
which would later be developed by scientists development of mathematical equations
like Galileo and Newton. describing the path and behavior of
projectiles.

The development of our current understanding of the physics of motion was a gradual
process that involved the refinement and critique of previously held philosophical concepts.
Philosophers and scientists built upon existing ideas and identified weaknesses or
inconsistencies through observations and experimentation.

One particular philosophical concept that underwent scrutiny was the explanation for horizontal
and vertical motions, as well as projectile motion. Aristotle proposed a division of the Universe
into the terrestrial and celestial regions and categorized motion into natural and violent motion.
However, Galileo Galilei challenged this notion and put forth the idea that projectile motion is a
combination of uniform motion in the horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the
vertical direction.

Additionally, the quantification of the "rate of fall" or "acceleration" was another aspect that
evolved over time. Aristotle's view was based on the concept of objects falling at different rates
based on their weight, while Galileo's experiments and observations led him to conclude that all
objects fall with the same acceleration in the absence of air resistance.

These contrasting viewpoints and the critical examination of philosophical concepts paved the
way for the development of modern physics and our current understanding of motion. Through
empirical evidence, experimentation, and mathematical analysis, scientists like Galileo and later
Isaac Newton were able to establish the fundamental principles and laws governing motion,
providing a more comprehensive and accurate framework for studying and explaining the
dynamics of objects in motion.
LESSON 5: How Galileo Inferred that Objects in Vacuum Fall in Uniform Acceleration
Motion is defined as the ability of an object to change its position with respect to its
surroundings in given time. Motion is always observed and measured with a point of
reference. All living things show motion whereas non-living things show motion only
when force acts on it.
These are the terms associated with motion. First, Free fall, which is an example of motion with
uniform acceleration. Second is acceleration which means the change in velocity with a given
time. Third is speed which is the distance traveled of an object in a specific amount of time.

Aristotle's View of Motion

● Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher who thought that heavier objects fall faster
than lighter ones.
● Force would be needed to have a constant velocity according to Aristotle. Force is
required for violent but not natural motion.

Galileo's View of Motion

● Italian Mathematician .Father of modern Science
● Discredited Aristotelian view of motion
● Object in vacuum will fall at the same time because in a vacuum there is nothing. Since
there is no air or anything in space, objects that are heavy or light, will fall at the same
time.
● Force is not necessarily required for violent motion.Force is not required for object
moving at constant velocity.
LESSON 6: Understanding Newton’s First Law of Motion
 Inertia refers to an object's inherent resistance to changes in its state of motion
or rest. Newton's first law of motion, often referred to as the law of inertia, encapsulates this
concept. According to the law of inertia, an object in motion will continue to move with a
constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force. Similarly, an object at rest will remain
at rest unless an external force is applied to it. In other words, the law of inertia states that
objects tend to maintain their current state of motion or rest unless compelled to do otherwise by
external influences.

Galileo and Inertia

● 1564-1642
● Galileo developed the first concept of laws of motion.
● Among these are the following: Developed the concept of motion in terms of velocity
(speed and direction) by using inclined planes. Developed the idea of force that causes
motion. Determined that the natural state of an object is rest or uniformed motion.
Developed the idea that objects resist motion, inertia
● Galileo proposed that the eventual cessation of motion for objects in motion is primarily
due to a force known as friction. Friction is a force that acts in opposition to the motion
between surfaces in contact with each other. Galileo's observations, particularly his
experiments with inclined planes, led him to conclude that the difference between the
initial and final heights of an object rolling on a surface was attributable to the presence
of friction.
● Based on his findings, Galileo hypothesized that if friction could be completely
eliminated, an object would reach the same height from which it was initially released.
Furthermore, he postulated that if a ball were to roll horizontally without any friction
acting upon it, it would continue to move indefinitely without coming to a stop.

Isaac Newton was born the same the year Galileo died. Newton’s law of inertia is based on
Galileo’s idea of inertia. He expanded Galileo’s work and came up with his Three Laws of
Motion.

Newton’s first law of motion states

that…
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
LESSON 7: Propagation of Light
The nature of light has been a subject of debate among scientists for centuries.
Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory, suggesting that light consists of particles, while
others argued for the wave theory. Newton's theory explained light traveling in straight lines but
couldn't account for wave-like phenomena. Wave theory, on the other hand, explained diffraction
and interference but couldn't explain the photoelectric effect. The debate continued until the
concept of wave-particle duality emerged, acknowledging that light behaves as both a wave and
a particle. This understanding has contributed to advancements in fields like quantum
mechanics and optics.

Rene Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton both studied the phenomenon of refraction and the
emergence of colors of light through experiments with prisms. Descartes used a spherical
glass filled with water and sunlight to produce a rainbow, explaining that refraction caused its
formation. He also proposed the concept of the plenum, an invisible substance permeating the
universe, and suggested that light traveled through it. When light passed through a prism at the
edge of the plenum, the rotational speeds of tiny balls within the plenum changed, resulting in
the emergence of different colors. Newton, on the other hand, also conducted experiments with
prisms to investigate the emergence of colors of light. He observed that the difference in
refraction was due to the varying masses of the colors of light. Newton proposed that particles
of matter exert an equal force on particles of light, causing colors with different mass and inertia
to be deflected at varying degrees.

The propagation of light, including phenomena like reflection and refraction, can be
explained by both the wave and particle models of light. These models provide different
perspectives on how light behaves and interact with its surroundings.

In the wave model, light is considered an electromagnetic wave that consists of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields. When light encounters a boundary between two different media,
such as air and glass, it can undergo reflection and refraction. Reflection occurs when light
waves bounce off a surface, following the law of reflection, which states that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This phenomenon explains why we can see our
reflection in a mirror or why light bounces off smooth surfaces.

Refraction, on the other hand, is

the bending of light as it passes
from one medium to another
with a different optical density.
According to the wave model,
when light waves encounter a
change in medium, they change
speed and direction. This
change in speed causes the
light to bend, and the amount of
bending depends on the angle of incidence and the properties of the media involved. The
well-known Snell's law describes the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction
in the wave model.

The particle model of light, on the other hand, considers light as a stream of particles called
photons. In this model, when light interacts with a surface, individual photons can be reflected or
absorbed by the material. Reflection occurs when photons bounce off the surface, similar to a
ball rebounding after hitting a wall. Refraction, in the particle model, can be explained by the
change in the path of individual photons as they pass through different media. The behavior of
photons at a boundary can be described using concepts such as momentum and energy
conservation.

Both the wave and particle models provide valuable insights into the propagation of light and its
interaction with surfaces. The wave model explains phenomena like interference and diffraction,
which are characteristic of wave-like behavior. The particle model, on the other hand, helps
explain phenomena like the photoelectric effect, where light can eject electrons from a material.

In modern physics, the wave-particle duality of light is embraced, recognizing that light exhibits
both wave-like and particle-like properties depending on the specific experiment or observation.
This understanding allows us to explain and predict the behavior of light in various situations,
providing a comprehensive framework for studying its propagation, reflection, and refraction.

Light behaves both as a wave Reflection and refraction are Light is a form of
and a particle. As particles, well-explained by the electromagnetic radiation that
light travels in straight lines, behaviors of light. When light moves through space in the
producing shadows and is emitted, it exhibits its dual form of oscillating waves. It
reflecting off surfaces. nature in various situations. consists of electric and
Refraction occurs when light Light, as waves, spreads in magnetic fields that alternate
particles change direction all directions and reflects off perpendicularly to the
while passing through smooth surfaces like mirrors, direction of its propagation.
different media. The producing reversed images. When traveling through a
photoelectric effect As particles, light bounces off vacuum, light moves at a
demonstrates light's particle the mirror surface, resulting in constant speed of 3.0 x 10^8
nature, as it can dislodge a reversal of the order of meters per second.
electrons from a metal particles and image.
surface. Light also acts as a The electromagnetic
wave, diffracting and Refraction occurs when light spectrum encompasses a
undergoing interference. passes between media with range of waves with different
Understanding light's dual different refractive indices, frequencies, which
nature is crucial for studying causing a change in direction. correspond to varying
its behavior and applications. Both wave and particle amounts of energy. The
models explain the bending accompanying figure
of light during refraction. illustrates the electromagnetic
Reflection produces different spectrum, displaying the
types of images depending wavelengths associated with
on the surface, often studied each type of wave.
using mirrors.
LESSON 8: Photon Concept and Its Practical Application
In your previous science module in junior high school, you were introduced to the
nature, types, and characteristics of waves, specifically electromagnetic waves. The module
also covered theories explaining the wave-particle duality of light and its behaviors such as
reflection, refraction, interference, scattering, dispersion, absorption, and filtering.

Now, you'll delve deeper into understanding light as a particle and how it influences our daily
activities. This upcoming journey promises to be enlightening and exciting, shedding more light
on the subject. However, before we progress, let's engage in an activity to assess your
knowledge of transverse waves. Let's rephrase the activity to gauge your understanding.