Network and System

Administration
Prepared by:
Er. Anup Bhuju
Nepal Banepa Polytechnic Institute
🔰 Course Introduction
• Network and System Administration is a technical course designed
to equip students with the practical and theoretical knowledge.
• Required to manage, configure, and secure computer networks and
systems.
• It includes fundamental concepts of networking, system setup,
administration tools, services, and protocols.
• Necessary for a functioning networked environment in any
organization.
• This course bridges the gap between hardware configuration, software
installation, system troubleshooting, and security enforcement,
forming the core of modern IT operations.
Course Contents Overview
• The subject typically includes the following units/modules:
• Computer Networking Basics
• Fundamentals of networking, OSI & TCP/IP models, protocols, architectures.
• IP Addressing and Subnetting
• IPv4, IPv6, subnetting, IP planning.
• Routing and Switching
• Static & dynamic routing, VLANs, inter-VLAN routing.
• Network Services Configuration
• DHCP, DNS, Web server, FTP, Email services.
• Linux and Windows Server Administration
• Installation, configuration, user and permission management.
• Network Security and Firewalls
• Firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention, VPNs, access control.
• Backup and Recovery
• Data backup techniques, disaster recovery planning.
• Monitoring and Troubleshooting
• Tools (ping, traceroute, Wireshark), system logs, fault identification.
⭐ Importance of the Course
Core Skill set for IT Professionals:
• Provides foundational and advanced knowledge in network and server management,
essential for IT support roles.

Job Readiness:
• Prepares students for technical roles like system/network administrators, support
technicians, and IT officers.

Security Awareness:
• Builds the ability to secure systems and networks from unauthorized access and attacks.

Supports Other IT Disciplines:

• Knowledge of networking and system administration is crucial in software development,
database administration, and cyber security.
🌐 Application Areas
Unit 1. Computer Networking Basics
• 1.1. Networking Fundamentals
• 1.2. OSI Reference Model
• 1.3. TCP/IP Model
• 1.4. Network protocols
• 1.5. Network Architecture

Prepared by: Er.Anup Bhuju 8

📘 Networking Fundamentals
• 🔹 What is a Computer Network?
• A computer network is a group of interconnected computers and
other devices that can exchange data and share resources.
• such as files, printers, internet connections, and applications.
🔹 Objectives of Networking
• Resource Sharing –
• Share printers, files, storage, and internet.
• Communication –
• Enable email, video conferencing, messaging.
• Centralized Data Management –
• Manage and back up data from one place.
• Cost Efficiency –
• Reduce hardware/software cost via sharing.
• Security –
• Control access and monitor usage.
Types of Networks:
Type Description Range Examples

LAN (Local Area Small geographic area like

Up to a few kilometers Office intranet
Network) a home, school, or office

MAN (Metropolitan Area ISP network in

Covers a city or campus Up to 50 km
Network) Kathmandu

WAN (Wide Area Large-scale coverage,

Unlimited The Internet
Network) often global
Network Devices and components
Device Function

NIC (Network Interface Card) Enables a device to connect to a network

Switch Connects devices within a LAN and forwards data using MAC addresses

Router Connects multiple networks and routes data packets

Modem Converts digital signals to analog and vice versa for internet access

Access Point (AP) Allows wireless devices to connect to a wired LAN

Firewall Protects the network from unauthorized access

Network Topologies
Topologies define the layout or structure of a network.
Topology Description Pros Cons
All devices connected to a single
Bus Easy to install Difficult to troubleshoot
cable

Devices connect to a central

Star Easy to manage Hub failure affects all
hub/switch

Data travels in one One failure affects entire

Ring Devices connected in a circle
direction network

Every device connected to every

Mesh High reliability Expensive and complex
other

Hybrid Mix of two or more topologies Flexible Complex to design

Types of Network Connections

Type Description Usage

Wired Uses cables like Ethernet (UTP/STP) Stable, faster data transfer

Wireless Uses radio waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) Flexible, but less secure
Network Categories Based on Control

Category Description

Client-Server Server provides resources and services; clients request them

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) All devices are equal; share data directly without a central server
Basic Terms in Networking
Term Description

Bandwidth Maximum data transfer rate of a network

Latency Time delay in data transmission

IP Address Unique identifier for a device on a network

MAC Address Physical address of a device's NIC

Protocol Set of rules for communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP)

🔹 Advantages of Networking
• Easier data access and collaboration
• Centralized software and hardware management
• Improved communication
• Scalable and expandable
• Cost-efficient through sharing
🔹 Challenges of Networking
• Network security threats (hacking, viruses)
• Complex setup and configuration
• High initial setup cost for large networks
• Maintenance and troubleshooting requirements
📘 OSI Reference Model (Open Systems Interconnection)

🔹 What is the OSI Model?

• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual
framework developed by ISO (International Organization for
Standardization).
• Standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing
system into seven abstract layers.
• Purpose is to guide product developers and facilitate interoperability
between systems and protocols.
The Seven Layers of OSI Model
Layer Layer Number Function Protocols/Examples

Application 7 Interfaces directly with user applications HTTP, FTP, SMTP

Data translation, encryption,

Presentation 6 SSL, JPEG
compression

Session 5 Establishes and maintains sessions NetBIOS, RPC

Transport 4 Reliable data delivery, flow control TCP, UDP

Network 3 Logical addressing and routing IP, ICMP, IPsec

Framing, MAC addressing, error

Data Link 2 Ethernet, PPP
detection

Physical 1 Transmission of raw bits over media Cables, Hubs, Modems

1.Physical Layer
Function:
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
• Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next.
Devices: Cables, switches, hubs, repeaters, Modem.
Concepts: Voltage levels, timing, pin configuration.
2.Data Link Layer
• Function:
• Responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.
• Ensure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer.
• Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

• Devices: Switches, Bridges.

• Protocols: Ethernet, PPP.
• Framing: attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end
of the frame.
• Physical Addressing: adds physical addresses of the sender
and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
3.Network Layer
• Function:
• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks.
• Takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network
layer.
• Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
• Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.
• Protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP.
4.Transport Layer
• Function: End-to-end communication, segmentation, error recovery.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
• Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (unreliable).
• Segmentation and Reassembly:
• This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer and breaks the
message into smaller units.
• Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
• The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
• Services provided by transport layer:
• Connectionless service (Three-phase process: Connection establishment →
Data transfer → Connection termination.)
• Connection oriented service(No acknowledgements or retransmissions.)
5.Session Layer
• Function:
• Manages sessions between applications:
• establishment of connections,
• management of connections,
• terminations of sessions between two devices.
• It also provides authentication and security.
• Synchronization:
• process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the data.
• help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

• Example: Remote procedure calls (RPC), NetBIOS(Network Basic

Input/Output System)
6.Presentation Layer
• Function:
• Data formatting : converting data into a format that both sender and
receiver understand, so that meaningful communication can happen
between different systems, applications, or architectures.
• Translation : ASCII to EBCDIC
• Encryption/Decryption : translate the data into another form and code
(cipher text) and vice versa.
compression : Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
• Examples: SSL/TLS, JPEG, MPEG, ASCII.
7. Application Layer
• Function: Closest to end-user; handles application services.
• Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
OSI Model in Real-Life Analogy (Sending a Letter)

OSI Layer Letter Analogy

Application You write the letter

Presentation You translate to the recipient’s language

Session You decide when to send and receive letters

Transport You number the pages and ensure none are missing

Network The address and route of delivery

Data Link The envelope with return address

Physical The postman, roads, and vehicles that carry the letter
📘 TCP/IP Reference Model
• What is the TCP/IP Model?
• The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model
is a practical framework developed by the U.S. Department of
Defense (DoD) to standardize networking and internet
communications.
• It forms the foundation of the modern Internet and is widely used for
data transmission.
• Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP is based on standard protocols used in
real-world networks.
🔍 Key Features of TCP/IP
• Developed before the OSI model and widely adopted.
• Defines how data is packaged, addressed, transmitted, routed, and
received.
• Designed for interoperability and network resilience.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model

Layer OSI Equivalent Function Key Protocols

Interfaces with the user and

Application OSI Layers 5, 6, 7 HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS
applications

Provides communication between

Transport OSI Layer 4 TCP, UDP
processes

Provides logical addressing and

Internet OSI Layer 3 IP, ICMP, ARP
routing

Network Access (Link) OSI Layers 1 & 2 Physical transmission of data Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC
1.Network Access Layer (Link Layer)
• Handles: Physical addressing, data framing, error detection.
• Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, DSL, Token Ring.
• Devices: Switches, NICs, cables.
2.Internet Layer
• Handles: Logical addressing (IP), routing, fragmentation.
• Key Protocol:
• IP (Internet Protocol) – Addressing and routing.
• ICMP – Error reporting and diagnostics (used by ping
).

• ARP – Resolves IP to MAC address.

•Devices: Routers.
Transport Layer
• Handles: Process-to-process delivery, segmentation, error recovery.
• Key Protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Reliable, connection-oriented.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Unreliable, connectionless, faster.
• Port Numbers: Identify application processes (e.g., port 80 = HTTP).
4.Application Layer
• Handles: End-user services and network applications.
• Protocols:
• HTTP/HTTPS – Web browsing
• FTP/SFTP – File transfer
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP – Email
• DNS – Domain resolution
• Telnet/SSH – Remote login
TCP/IP vs. OSI Model

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers 7 4

Development Theoretical Practical (Internet-based)

Use Teaching, Standardization Real-world networks

Protocol Definition Protocol-independent Protocol-specific (e.g., TCP, IP)

Network protocols
• A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication
between different devices in the network.
• It determines what is being communicated, how it is being
communicated, and when it is being communicated.
• It permits connected devices to communicate with each other,
irrespective of internal and structural differences.
🔹 Types of Network Protocols and Their Functions
Category Protocol Function

Manage reliable or fast data transfer and routing across

Communication TCP, UDP, IP
networks.

Web HTTP, HTTPS Used for accessing web pages.

File Transfer FTP, SFTP Enable sending and receiving files over a network.

Email SMTP, POP3, IMAP Used for sending, receiving, and accessing emails.

DNS translates domain names to IPs, DHCP assigns IPs

Addressing DNS, DHCP
automatically.

Network Management SNMP, Telnet, SSH Monitor, manage, and securely access network devices.

Routing RIP, OSPF, BGP Help routers decide the best path for sending data.

Provide encryption and secure communication between

Security SSL/TLS, IPSec
devices.
💡 Why Are Network Protocols Important?
• Interoperability: Allow devices from different vendors to work
together.
• Reliability: Ensure data is delivered correctly (TCP).
• Security: Protect sensitive data (SSL/TLS, HTTPS).
• Scalability: Support large and complex networks (BGP, OSPF).
🔹 1. IP (Internet Protocol)
• Function: Responsible for addressing and routing packets between
devices.
• Key Points:
• Assigns a unique IP address to each device.
• Handles delivery of packets from source to destination.
• Can be IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) or IPv6 (e.g., 2001:0db8::1).
• Does not guarantee delivery — just sends the packet.
🔹 2. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• Function: Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked data
transmission.
• Key Points:
• Connection-oriented (establishes a connection first using a 3-way handshake).
• Guarantees data delivery and correct order.
• Slower but reliable (used for web pages, email, file transfers).
• Example: When you load a website (HTTP), it uses TCP.
🔹 3. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• Function: Allows fast, connectionless, and unreliable data
transmission.
• Key Points:
• No connection is established before sending.
• No guarantee of delivery or order — best effort.
• Faster than TCP but less reliable.
• Used in real-time applications like video calls, gaming, streaming.
📊 Comparison Table
Feature TCP UDP IP

Reliability Yes No No

Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless Connectionless

Speed Slower Faster Fast

Ordering Maintains order Does not maintain order No

Video/Voice, Games, Live

Use Cases Web, Email, File Transfer All data transmission
Stream
🔹 1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

Purpose: Transfers web content (text, images, videos, etc.) between a web
browser (client) and a web server.

Port Used: Port 80

How It Works:
The browser sends an HTTP request (e.g., to open a webpage).
The server responds with the content (HTML, images, etc.).

Security: Not secure — data is transmitted as plain text and can be intercepted.
Example URL: http://example.com
 2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure)

Purpose: Same as HTTP but secure - uses encryption to protect

data.
Port Used: Port 443
How It Works:
Encrypts HTTP traffic using SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer /
Transport Layer Security).
Ensures data privacy, authentication, and integrity.
Security: Very secure — protects sensitive data (e.g., passwords,
payments).
Example URL: https://example.com
Comparison between HTTP and HTTPs

Feature HTTP HTTPS

Full Form HyperText Transfer Protocol HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

Port 80 443

Encryption ❌ No ✅ Yes (SSL/TLS)

Security Low High (confidential & verified)

Use Case Basic web browsing Secure websites (banking, login pages)
🔹 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Protocol Type: TCP/IP-based protocol
• Port Used: Ports 20 (data) and 21 (control)
• Security: Not secure — data, including usernames and passwords, is
sent in plain text
• Authentication: Username and password
• Encryption: No encryption unless used with TLS/SSL (then it’s called
FTPS)
• Speed: Generally faster than SFTP due to less overhead
• Use Case: Suitable for transferring non-sensitive files within trusted
networks
🔹 SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol)
• Protocol Type: Operates over SSH (Secure Shell)
• Port Used: Port 22
• Security: Secure — data is encrypted during transmission
• Authentication: Uses SSH keys or username/password
• Encryption: Fully encrypted channel (both commands and data)
• Speed: Slightly slower due to encryption overhead
• Use Case: Ideal for secure file transfers over untrusted networks
✅ Key Differences

Feature FTP SFTP

Security No encryption Fully encrypted

Port 21 (and 20 for data) 22

Underlying Protocol TCP/IP SSH

Setup Complexity Simple Slightly complex (due to SSH setup)

Firewall Friendly Less (uses multiple connections) More (uses single connection)
📧 1. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Purpose: Used to send emails from a client to a mail server or
between mail servers.
• Direction: Sending only
• Port Used: Port 25 (default), 587 (submission), 465 (secure with SSL)
• Authentication: Often requires authentication (especially on port
587)
• Encryption: STARTTLS or SSL/TLS can be used
• Use Case: When you send an email via an email client or webmail
📥 2. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
• Purpose: Used to retrieve emails from a mail server to a local device
• Behavior: Downloads emails and often deletes them from the server
• Port Used: Port 110, or 995 (with SSL)
• Offline Access: Yes — emails are stored locally
• Multi-device Sync: Not ideal — messages are removed from the
server
• Use Case: Simple access from one device with no need to sync across
devices
📤 3. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• Purpose: Used to retrieve and manage emails from a mail server
• Behavior: Keeps emails on the server; only downloads when viewed
• Port Used: Port 143, or 993 (with SSL)
• Offline Access: Limited; depends on client configuration
• Multi-device Sync: Excellent — messages and folders stay in sync
• Use Case: Accessing the same email account from multiple devices
Comparison
Feature SMTP POP3 IMAP

Retrieving/managing
Purpose Sending mail Retrieving mail
mail

Direction Outgoing only Incoming only Incoming only

Storage N/A Local Server

Sync Support No Poor Good

Port (default) 25/587/465 110 / 995 143 / 993

DNS (Domain Name System)
Purpose:
Converts domain names (like www.google.com) into IP
addresses (like 142.250.64.68)
so computers can locate each other on a network or the internet.
Key Functions:
Acts like the phonebook of the internet.
Helps users use easy-to-remember names instead of numeric IP addresses.
Uses a hierarchical structure (Root, TLD, authoritative servers).
Example:
You type www.facebook.com into a browser.
DNS finds the corresponding IP address and connects you to Facebook’s
server.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
Purpose:
Automatically assigns IP addresses and other network configuration settings to
devices in a network.
Key Functions:
Assigns IP address, subnet mask, gateway, DNS server info.
Prevents IP address conflicts by managing a pool of available addresses.
Saves time compared to manual IP configuration.
How It Works:
Device sends a DHCP Discover message.
Server responds with a DHCP Offer.
Device sends a Request.
Server sends an Acknowledgement (DHCP ACK).
Difference Between DNS and DHCP

Feature DNS DHCP

Main Function Translates domain names to IPs Assigns IPs to devices

Direction Resolves names → IPs Assigns IPs → devices

Use Case Web browsing Connecting to a network

Static database (name-IP

Configuration Dynamic allocation
mappings)
• Purpose: Used for monitoring and managing network devices such as
routers, switches, and servers.
• Key Functions:
• Monitors device performance, gathers data like CPU usage,
bandwidth, memory, etc.
• Allows configuration of network devices remotely.
• Supports operations like network device querying, device control,
and event notifications.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• How It Works:
• SNMP works using a manager-agent model:
• The SNMP Manager (software) collects information from network devices (agents).
• The SNMP Agent (on the network device) provides data like device status, configurations, and
performance metrics.
• SNMP uses OID (Object Identifiers) to query specific data points on a device.
• Versions:
• SNMPv1: Basic functionality, not secure.
• SNMPv2: Improved speed and capabilities but still lacks encryption.
• SNMPv3: Adds security features like authentication and encryption.
• Example:
• Network administrators use SNMP to monitor routers and switches to ensure everything
is functioning well.
Telnet (Telecommunication Network)
• Purpose: Used to remotely access and control devices over a network
via a command-line interface.
• Key Functions:
• Provides remote terminal access to devices over a network.
• Allows users to issue commands directly to a device (e.g., router,
server).
• Operates on TCP port 23 (unsecure).
How It Works:
• The user connects to a remote device using a Telnet client.
• Once connected, the user can run commands as though they were
physically present at the device.
• The connection is unencrypted, meaning all data (including login
credentials) is transmitted in plain text.
• Limitations:
• Security concerns: Since Telnet transmits data in plaintext, it is
susceptible to eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks.
• Deprecated for sensitive usage: Due to security vulnerabilities, Telnet
is rarely used in favor of more secure protocols.
SSH (Secure Shell)
• Purpose: Provides secure remote access to network devices, servers,
and computers.
• Key Functions:
• Similar to Telnet, but encrypted, protecting sensitive data.
• Provides secure access to devices over a network, including file
transfers (via SCP or SFTP).
• Uses public key and private key authentication, making it much more
secure than Telnet.
How It Works:
• SSH uses a client-server model to establish an encrypted communication
channel between the client and the remote device.
• The client authenticates the server using a public/private key pair or a
password.
• Once connected, the user can issue commands or transfer files securely.
• Ports:
• Operates on TCP port 22 (encrypted).
• Advantages:
• Encryption protects sensitive data (such as passwords and commands).
• Widely used for remote administration and secure communications.
• Supports public-key cryptography for secure and password-less logins.
• Example:
• Network administrators or developers use SSH to securely log into
servers to manage configurations, run scripts, or transfer files.
Comparison: SNMP, Telnet, SSH
Feature SNMP Telnet SSH
Device management &
Purpose Remote terminal access Secure remote access
monitoring
Limited (SNMPv1/v2) / High (Encrypted, key-
Security No encryption (insecure)
Strong (SNMPv3) based)
Monitoring & controlling Remote command-line
Usage Remote administration
devices access

Protocol Type Management (monitoring) Terminal Access Protocol Secure communication

161 (Agent), 162

Ports 23 22
(Manager)
SNMPv3 supports
Encryption No encryption Strong encryption
encryption
Network monitoring, Secure server access,
Common Use Case Legacy remote access
device status administration
🔁 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
• Type: Link-State Routing Protocol
• Purpose: Used within a single Autonomous System (AS) for dynamic
routing, especially in large networks.
• Key Features:
• Metric: Cost (based on bandwidth; lower cost = preferred path).
• Updates: Only sends updates when a change occurs (more efficient).
• Algorithm: Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First.
• Hierarchical Design: Supports areas (e.g., Area 0 is the backbone).
• Fast Convergence: Quickly adapts to network changes.
• Advantages:
• More efficient and scalable than RIP.
• Supports VLSM, CIDR, and authentication.
• Detects better routes due to link-state awareness.
• Disadvantages:
• More complex to configure than RIP.
• Port: Uses IP protocol number 89 (not TCP/UDP)
🌐 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
• Type: Path Vector Routing Protocol
• Purpose: Used to route data between different Autonomous Systems
(ASes) on the internet.
• Key Features:
• Metric: Path attributes (like AS path, prefix, next hop).
• Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): Unlike RIP and OSPF which are Interior
Gateway Protocols (IGPs).
• Policy-Based Routing: Admins can control routing decisions based on
policies.
• Doesn’t rely on fastest path, but on policy control and reachability.
• Versions: BGP-4 is the current version (supports IPv6 and CIDR).
• Advantages:
• Scales to the entire internet.
• Highly flexible and policy-driven.
• Disadvantages:
• Slower convergence.
• Complex configuration and management.
• Port: Uses TCP port 179.
Comparison Table
Feature RIP OSPF BGP
Type Distance Vector Link State Path Vector
Small/medium internal Routing between organizations
Use Large internal networks
networks (ASes)
Metric Hop count Cost (bandwidth-based) Path attributes (AS path, etc.)
Custom (Path vector with
Algorithm Bellman-Ford Dijkstra (SPF)
policies)
Convergence Slow Fast Slower (due to global scope)
Scalability Low Medium to High Very High
Port/Protocol UDP 520 IP protocol 89 TCP 179
🔐 SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer / Transport
Layer Security)
• Purpose: Provides secure communication over the internet,
especially for web traffic (HTTPS).
• 🔸 TLS is the modern, secure replacement for SSL.
• SSL is now deprecated due to security vulnerabilities.
• TLS is more secure and widely used (TLS 1.2 and TLS 1.3 are current
standards).
📌 Key Features:
• Encryption: Protects data from being read during transmission.
• Authentication: Uses digital certificates to verify the identity of
servers (and sometimes clients).
• Integrity: Ensures data is not altered using message authentication
codes (MACs).
• Works over TCP, mainly used with HTTPS, SMTP, IMAP, etc.
🏛Network Architecture: Overview
• Network architecture refers to the design and structure of a
computer network.
• It defines how devices (nodes) are organized, how they communicate,
and how resources are managed.
• It includes hardware, software, communication protocols, and
topologies.
🔧 Types of Network Architecture
• 1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture
• 2. Client-Server Architecture
1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture
All computers (nodes) have equal status.
Each device can act as both a client and a server.
No central control.
Pros:
Simple and inexpensive.
Easy to set up.
Cons:
Poor scalability and security.
Not ideal for large networks.

Example: File-sharing systems like BitTorrent.

2. Client-Server Architecture
One or more servers provide services to multiple clients.
Centralized control, storage, and management.
Pros:
Better security and management.
Scalable and reliable.
Cons:
More complex and costly.
Server failure can affect the entire network.

Example: Web applications, email servers, database servers.