Sådhanå (2021) 46:26  Indian Academy of Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12046-020-01556-2
Sadhana(0123456789().,-volV)FT3](012345
6789().,-volV)

Bidirectional integrated on-board chargers for electric vehicles—a

review
CAROLINE ANN SAM* and V JEGATHESAN

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Coimbatore, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

MS received 27 July 2020; revised 9 October 2020; accepted 22 November 2020

Abstract. This paper reviews about the bidirectional on-board chargers for electric vehicles. The chargers are
of two types: on-board chargers and off-board chargers. The overall size, weight and cost of the onboard
chargers can be reduced using integrated on-board chargers where the drive train components are used for
propulsion as well as for charging. Four-quadrant operation of the drive is possible using the bidirectional
converters in the drive train. Regenerative braking control in the integrated on-board chargers aids in proper
utilization of braking energy, which in turn increases the driving range of the vehicle. Various on-board chargers
are presented and their working, advantages and limitations are discussed here.

Keywords. Electric vehicle; four-quadrant operation; integrated on-board chargers; power factor correction;
regenerative braking.

1. Introduction will be used as a means of storage and other is used for

providing driving energy.
The increased demand of modern transportation system for Depending on the level of hybridization, HEVs are
the economic development and societal comfort is creating classified as Micro-HEV, Mild HEV, Full HEV and fuel
the growing presence of global warming and some dan- cell HEV [2–4].
gerous climate changes. The major cause of these adverse An EV power train mainly consists of an energy storage
environmental effects is due to the harmful environmental system [5–7], electric motor, power converter to drive the
pollutants emitted by Internal Combustion (IC)-enabled motor [8–11] and EV charging circuit.
automobiles. One potential alternative to the world’s The EV charging circuit is basically classified as on-
dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles is board chargers and off-board chargers depending on its
electric vehicles (EVs). location. If the charging circuit is incorporated in the EV
The popularity of EV is increasing day by due to their power train itself it is an on-board charger and if it is placed
nearly zero carbon emission and less dependence on fossil outside, separately in a public area, it is an off-board
fuels. Also, since the electric motors used in EV are more charger.
efficient than the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), this This paper reviews about the different configurations
transportation system results in saving energy than the ICE of bidirectional on-board chargers that make the drive
vehicles. train suitable for four-quadrant operation utilizing very
Different types of EV configurations are Battery less space in the vehicle. The paper is organized as
Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles follows. Section 1 gives an outline of the significance
(HEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). BEV of EV, different types of EV and briefly explains about
consists of an electric battery for energy storage, an different parts of EV powertrain. Sections 2 and 3 give
electric motor and a controller. The electric battery can a general description about the power electronic system
be recharged using a charging unit, which can be carried in EV and the different types of chargers used in EV,
along with the vehicle or it can be fitted at the charging respectively. Section 4 gives a review on different
point. HEV has a combination of two energy sources [1]. configurations of bidirectional on-board chargers for
It can be a combination of electric/IC engine, flywheel/IC EV. The circuit configuration of integrated on-board
engine and battery/fuel cell. Among the two sources, one chargers and braking control methods of on-board
chargers are discussed in the subsequent subsections.
Finally, section 5 provides conclusions for the
*For correspondence paper.
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2. Power electronics in EV batteries. They are similar to gas stations used for refilling
the fuel tank of ICE vehicles [18].
The role of power electronics in EV is to provide supply to Based on the power levels, battery chargers are classified
the traction motor to obtain the desired performance and to as Level 1 chargers, Level 2 chargers and DC fast chargers.
charge the batteries during idle time [12, 13]. It has to Level 1 charging can be done even at home overnight,
control the reverse power flow, which can be fed back to where the EV will be plugged to a Single-Phase AC power
the battery during regenerative braking conduction or to the outlet. Level 2 charging requires a single phase or three-
grid during idle condition [14, 15]. Figure 1 presents the phase AC outlet and is intended for private and public
power electronic system used in EV. applications. DC fast chargers are intended for commercial
During propulsion mode the traction motor will be driven and public applications and require a three-phase power
by a power converter, which regulates the power flow to the outlet. Table 1 describes the classification of EV chargers
motor. The energy storage system provides power to the based on their power level [19].
traction converter through a DC–DC converter. The DC– Earlier the EV chargers were based on diode bridge
DC converter will step up or step down the power from the rectification, which were subsequently replaced by thyris-
storage system as required by the motor. During charging tor-based chargers. These chargers support only unidirec-
mode the vehicle battery, which forms a part of the energy tional current flow.
storage system, will be charged from the utility through a The EV charger designs were modified with micropro-
rectifier and a DC–DC converter. The control pulses for the cessor-based control incorporating Pulse Width Modulation
power electronic converters in the drive train will be pro- (PWM) control. This kind of chargers have several charge
duced by electronic controllers. algorithms for providing better battery charging control
[20–22].
EV chargers, when connected to AC mains, introduce
3. Classification of EV chargers harmonics in the utility, which results in voltage distortion,
heating, noise and reduction in supply capability to provide
Compared with conventional ICE vehicles the main chal- energy. Power Factor Correction (PFC) techniques [23]
lenge faced by EV is the driving range, which depends have to be incorporated to comply with power quality
upon the battery performance. Research works have been standards and recommendations.
carried out on battery design, battery management system Power Factor (PF) has been improved in unidirectional
and also on the battery charging techniques for improving battery chargers by suitably shaping and phasing the
the performance of the battery [16, 17]. Depending upon input current. Bidirectional battery chargers [24] have
the location, battery chargers are of two types, on-board been introduced, which support power flow in both
chargers and off-board chargers. directions.
On-board chargers are low-power slow chargers, which Some of the power devices of the traction inverter of AC
are placed on the vehicle itself. Although it takes longer motors can be used to set up the charger circuit for charging
charging time, it can be utilized for charging the battery in the energy storage system in EV drive trains. The circuit is
home/office/parking area through the utility supply. named as integrated battery chargers (IBCs), which have
Off-board chargers are high-power, fast chargers placed the advantage of reducing the circuit components. This
at public area, which can be used for charging the vehicle circuit can be unidirectional or bidirectional [25, 26].

Figure 1. Power electronics in EV power train.

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 3 of 14 26

Table 1. Classification of EV chargers [19].

Power level types Charger location Typical use Expected power level Charging time
Level 1 chargers On-board 1-phase Charging at home or office 1.4 kW (12 A) 4–11 hours
1.9 kW (20 A) 11–36 hours
Level 2 chargers On-board 1- or 3-phase Charging at private or public outlet 4 kW (17 A) 1–4 hours
8 kW (32 A) 2–6 hours
19.2 kW (80 A) 2–3 hours
DC fast chargers Off-board Commercial, analogous to filling stations 50 kW 0.4–1 hour
100 kW 0.2–0.5 hour

4. Bidirectional on-board chargers The full-bridge PWM AC–DC converters consist of four
controllable switches and four diodes. Compared with half-
For EV batteries, fast charging is made possible using a DC bridge topology, full-bridge topology has a greater number
charging station with off-board charger. However, in the of controllable switches but requires only one capacitor.
current scenario, due to its cost, it is not widely used. One Component stress is lesser for full-bridge topology. The
of the cheaper alternatives is to place a separate on-board circuit requires four PWM switching pulses, which
charger unit in the vehicle power train, which is capable of increases the complexity of control circuitry [28]
charging the battery from commonly available 3-phase or Another type of bidirectional converter gives multilevel
single-phase supply outlets. Figure 2 shows the general output by combining the features of half-bridge and full-
block diagram for bidirectional on-board charger topology, bridge converters. One major concern with this topology is
which facilitates the bidirectional flow of power from the additional complexity with increased number of com-
utility to energy storage and back to utility in grid-con- ponents [29]. Compared with single-stage topologies, two-
nected system. stage topologies can handle more than one charging level;
Different topologies of bidirectional AC/DC converters thus, they exhibit improved performance. The first stage
have been reviewed and the circuit complexity and the performs AC–DC conversion, which is basically responsi-
performance of these converters are compared in [27, 28]. ble for PFC and regulating the DC link voltage. The second
Bidirectional on-board chargers are broadly classified under stage, which performs the DC–DC conversion, controls the
single-stage and two-stage topologies. The commonly used battery charging and discharging operation.
single-stage topologies are half-bridge, full-bridge and Different topologies of bidirectional DC–DC converters
multilevel converters. used in on-board chargers are summarized in Table 2
Most commonly used bidirectional AC–DC converters [30–45].
are half-bridge, full-bridge and multilevel converters.
The half-bridge converters have two controllable
switches and two diodes. The major drawback of this
4.1 Bidirectional integrated on-board chargers
topology is high voltage stress on the switches. The two
capacitors increase the size and complexity of the con- In a conventional electric drive train, there are separate
verter [27]. circuits for propulsion and charging modes. This additional

Figure 2. General bidirectional on-board charging topology.

 26 Page 4 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

Table 2. Features of different bidirectional on-board chargers in an electric vehicle.

Sl.
no. Converter Features
1 [30] •Consists of a bridge rectifier, 2-phase interleaved buck–boost converter with PFC.
•It gives an efficiency of 97.6% and a PF of 0.99.
2 [31] •Applicable in case of hybrid energy inputs like Photovoltaic (PV) cell, fuel cell and battery are
available.
•Regenerative braking analysis is done for the proposed system.
3 [32] •Fuzzy logic controller implemented for hybrid electric vehicle with converter powered by
battery and PV cell.
•Fuzzy logic regulates the battery current, which reduces the battery damage, thereby increasing
its lifetime.
4 [33] •Half-bridge topology with PI controller and Zero Voltage •Soft switching technique is
proposed for DC motor.
•Bidirectional power during regenerative braking is clearly indicated by the increase of battery
State of Charge (SoC).
5 [34] •The circuit has 4 switches and diodes with charging and discharging modes of operation.
•Regenerative braking energy is used to charge any one of the sources depending on its voltage
level.
•The converter efficiency of 93% is obtained in both operating modes.
6 [35] •The proposed converter has 6 SiC MOSFETs and 2 inductors connected to get boost-
interleaved operation.
•The 2 MOSFETs among 6 are operated as synchronous rectifier.
•The maximum efficiency of the converter reaches 99.2% with a PF of 0.99.
•The bidirectional operation makes it suitable for Vehicle to Grid (V2G) and Grid to Vehicle
(G2V) operations.
7 [36] •In addition to V2G and G2V operations, Vehicle for Grid (V4G) and Vehicle to Home (V2H)
operations are also possible.
•In V4G operation a battery charger is used for compensating current harmonics or reactive
power in connection with V2G or G2V applications.
8 [37] •The battery voltage of 144 V is boosted to 400 V by interleaved front-end converter.
It consists of 2 interleaved boost converters. The DC link voltage is regulated as per the
command speed and a maximum efficiency of 96.99% is obtained. The load dynamic responses and the fast DC
link voltage tracking are done using the proposed robust control.
9 [38] •Bidirectional converter with Modular Charge Equalizer Circuit (CEC) realized to improve the
system reliability and flexibility.
•Life cycle of the battery improves by constant charging/discharging method.
•The switching pattern proposed, reduces the switching stress.
10 [39] •The converter adopts sinusoidal charging method to eliminate the use of DC link electrolytic
capacitor.
•The proposed charger exhibits an efficiency of 95.7% in the charging mode and 95.4% in the
discharging mode.
11 [40] •Additional control technique included to increase the converter gain.
•Experimental set-up provides efficiency of 97.2% and 96.2% during charging and discharging
process, respectively.
12 [41] •An efficient DC link voltage controller is implemented for Light Electric Vehicle (LEV), which
keeps the voltage constant for PWM inverter. The bidirectional boost converter taps the regenerative braking
energy.
•PWM inverter works with vector control logic.
13 [42] •The proposed converter provides high step/step down gain for EVs with Hybrid Energy Storage
System.
•It provides an efficiency of 94.45% in buck mode and 94.39% in boost mode.
14 [43] •Matrix converter eliminating the DC link capacitor is proposed for EVs. Modulation strategy
proposed eliminates undesirable harmonics in the grid system.
•Converter exhibits an efficiency of 89.6% and 89.3% for forward and reverse operations,
respectively.
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 5 of 14 26

Table 2 continued

Sl.
no. Converter Features
15 [44] •The proposed modulation strategy for AC–DC matrix converter provides controllable power
factor in grid interface and voltage/current regulation for the battery storage device.
•Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is found to be 2.58% in charging mode and 3.44% in
discharging mode.
16 [45] •The proposed buck–boost converter can control active and reactive power in V2G and G2V
modes.
•Experimental results exhibit a THD of 7%.

charging unit will increase the overall weight and cost of

the drive train. Since the battery charging is done during the
idle time of the vehicle, power drive train used for
propulsion mode can be utilized for charging mode also;
hence this avoids the additional requirement of a charging
unit. This type of configuration where EV drive train
components used for propulsion mode are utilized for on-
board charging is known as integrated on-board chargers.
An integrated on-board charger was proposed in [46],
which requires only the propulsion mode components for
charging operation except a transfer switch. The four-wheel Figure 4. IGBT inverter circuit is used as an integrated charger
drive consists of four inverters connected to the four AC [48].
motors of the vehicle. During charging, the drive circuit is
equivalent to a cascade connection of a single-phase PWM
boost converter and two buck type choppers. Unity power A battery charging circuit based on double buck and
factor operation (UPF) is realized using a PWM boost boost converter is introduced [49], where the propulsion
converter. The battery voltage and current regulation to the inverter is made to work in boost and double buck mode
desired value is done using the two buck converters. By during charging operation. It works as a boost converter
suitably controlling the switching operation of the chop- whenever output voltage is greater than input voltage and it
pers, current ripple can be reduced by a considerable works as a double buck converter whenever output voltage
amount. is less than input voltage. Double buck converter operation
Figure 3 shows an on-board charger in which the three- is like two buck converters working in synchronous mode
phase inverter acts as a double buck and boost converter in order to make a UPF.
during charging mode. The required buck and boost oper- A bidirectional converter is proposed for industrial truck
ation takes place through the motor windings [47, 48]. application [50], which acts as a speed controller in
Figure 4 shows the circuit configuration where an on- propulsion mode and as a battery charger in charge mode of
board inverter alone works in charging operation. For operation. The converters for pallet truck and fork lift truck
proper charging of the storage device, external inductors are realized and results analyzed. Current harmonics due to
have to be connected [48, 49]. the converters are reduced using PFC technique. Converter
efficiency is found to be 90%.
To improve the drive performance with reduced cost, on-
board chargers with a bidirectional converter was proposed
[51] in which the bidirectional converter acts as a rectifier
during charging mode and as an inverter during inverter
mode as shown in figure 5. To reduce the size and weight of
the on-board chargers, a combination topology is proposed
in which the motor windings act as a boost energy storage
inductor during rectifier mode and as a filter during inverter
mode.
A low-cost digital controlled charger is proposed for
plug-in EVs, which utilizes the available main traction and
Figure 3. Three-phase inverter acting as a double buck and boost auxiliary motors and associated power electronic drive of
converter in charging mode [48]. HEV to form the charger circuit. The topology can be used
 26 Page 6 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

Figure 5. Bidirectional converter as a battery charger [51].

for low-power applications with significant cost, weight and transformer and the traction inverter acts as a PWM recti-
volume reductions [52]. The topology is verified by mod- fier during charging mode. The system efficiency is found
eling and experimental results on a 14-kW prototype yield to be 92%.
an efficiency of 91.3%, THD = 8.96% and PF of 0.99. An 8-switch inverter topology was proposed [56] to
An IBE is proposed [53] for high-voltage batteries of an integrate the PHEV with the utility grid. It works as a
electric scooter. The power circuit of the drive train acts as single-phase bidirectional AC–DC converter during the
the battery charger. Here the motor drive acts as the three- charging mode and as a DC–AC converter during the
phase boost rectifier with the capability of PFC. Figure 6 propulsion mode. The performance analysis is done by
shows the block diagram of the integrated charger where evaluating different modes of operation. In addition, a
the AC traction drive is converted to a PFC battery charger. bidirectional interleaved DC–DC converter and its con-
Input AC current is drawn at UPF with no harmonic dis- troller is presented for the battery that maintains the DC
tortion. The efficiency of the battery charger is found to be link voltage with high efficiency. The THD of the converter
86.87%. is found to be 2.72%. Figure 7 shows the circuit diagram of
An integrated charger based on a special interior per- the 8-switch inverter.
manent motor drive is proposed [54, 55], where the 3-phase Several conventional methods of charging and control
motor winding is split and reconfigured to a 3-phase using the motor inductance and inverter are analyzed in

Figure 6. Integrated charger with PFC for electric scooter [53].

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 7 of 14 26

Figure 7. Eight-switch inverter working as an AC–DC converter during charging mode and DC–AC converter during motoring mode
[56].

[57]. Also, a new charging method using buck PFC is in modes 1 and 2 will work as a full-bridge isolated DC–DC
proposed and the comparison of different topologies is converter in mode 3, avoiding the use of a separate con-
done. Using an IBE, by the interleaving control method verter for charging mode. Mode 1 operates with a THD of
with two inverters and a boost PFC converter is considered 1.8% and a PF of 0.8. Mode 2 operates with a THD of 2.4%
as the optimal battery charging method. The converter and UPF.
exhibits a THD of 4% and a PF of 0.99. A bridgeless SEPIC converter with PFC is proposed [59]
Battery charging technique can be implemented using for on-board chargers that has a few advantages like
two inverters, two three-phase motors and a bidirectional reduced number of components and reduction of conduc-
converter for HEVs. During propulsion mode, motor 1 tion loss during AC–DC conversion, thereby increasing the
delivers regenerative energy to the battery and motor 2 overall system efficiency. The converter employs current
starts up the engine or charges the high-voltage battery. and voltage loops to obtain near-UPF. The system provides
During charging, the two motors and the inverters together improved THD, less conduction loss and improved PF near
operate as a boost converter. The boosted voltage is unity. For an input voltage of 230 V, PF obtained is 0.997.
reduced to the nominal battery voltage by the bidirectional A single-phase integrated on-board charger is proposed
converter. for Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) in which the switches of
Another charging topology can be implemented using a the traction inverter are operated to form a closed circuit
diode rectifier, an inverter, a three-phase motor and a with the diode bridge rectifier circuit. A near-UPF is
bidirectional converter [57]. The electric motor and the obtained with a THD of 3.96% and an efficiency of 93.1%
inverter together operate as the boost converter during during charging mode [60].
charging mode. The boosted DC link voltage is reduced to A bidirectional cuk-converter-based IBE is proposed
nominal value through the bidirectional DC–DC converter. [61], which has the capability of PFC during plug-in
PFC is incorporated in the circuit with two inverters, two charging mode and acts as a buck/boost converter during
three-phase motors and a bidirectional converter. The DC motoring and regenerative braking modes. The circuit is
link capacitor is not utilized for charging. For PFC, an made compact and cost effective by minimizing the number
additional capacitor of a few microhenries is incorporated of components. The proposed charging circuit allows a
in the circuit. wide range of operation and can be charged with a voltage
A reconfigurable battery charger with single-phase AC source ranging from 100 to 260 V. The system also pro-
supply is proposed [58] for EV applications, which can vides an efficient control of regenerative braking energy.
perform for three modes of operation. In mode 1, the High-speed battery chargers with available 3-phase
traction batteries are charged from the grid. In mode 2, supply are proposed with Wide Band Gap (WGP) devices
traction batteries deliver the stored energy to the power like silicon carbide [62], which are capable of delivering a
grid. In mode 3, the auxiliary battery is charged from the high power of 20 kW. Since WGP devices are of much
traction battery. The bidirectional AC–DC converter used higher power density than silicon devices, these fast
 26 Page 8 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

chargers can be fitted on-board. Two half-bridge LLC Another traction inverter with integrated charger is pro-
converters connected in series on the primary side and posed for EV [69], which consists of a charging voltage
connected in parallel on the secondary side together pro- converter, an inverter, a switching device and a control unit.
vide 20 kW. Experimental results show that the set-up has The charging voltage converter consists of an inductor,
attained an efficiency of 96%. capacitor, fully controllable switch and two power diodes.
A compact bidirectional cuk-converter-based charger is The inverter output terminals are connected to the three
proposed for PEV, which operates with a sturdier Induction power contacts. During motoring mode the power contacts
Motor Drive [63]. The proposed charger operates as a provide the motor windings to the inverter, while in
bidirectional DC–DC converter for PFC during charging charging mode the three-phase AC source is connected to
operation and as buck boost converter during driving and the inverter terminals via power contacts. It provides
regenerative braking mode. accelerated charging of the on-board vehicle battery pack at
A bidirectional integrated charger [64] with a front-end the power level equivalent to that of the traction inverter.
polarity inversion module, current source converter, input A novel bridgeless cuk-converter-based charger is pro-
filter and a differentially connected dual-inverter drive is posed [70] for EV, which has improved power quality
realized, where the motor has open winding configuration features. The modified topology utilizes only a single
with phase windings differentially connected to two switch for both half cycles for PFC operation. However,
inverters from the two DC sources. The major advantage of Constant Current (CC) and Constant Voltage (CV) charg-
dual-inverter drive is the high DC link voltage obtained ing is achieved using a flyback converter. Figure 8 shows
from the low-voltage DC sources. Simulation results show the circuit diagram of the modified bridgeless cuk-con-
the PF to be unity. verter-based EV charger, which has a front-end diode
A single-phase integrated PFC charger is proposed [65], bridge rectifier with Inductor–Capacitor (LC) filter, a cuk
which has only two switches in addition to diode bridge converter and a flyback converter.
rectifier circuit and propulsion inverter, for the charger An IBE based on the split three-phase Induction Motor is
circuit. During charging, depending on the input and output proposed where the propulsion inverter of the EV is utilized
voltages, transition between buck and boost operation as the rectifier and the motor windings are used as grid
occurs. Smooth transition is obtained using a single PI filter, connected between the grid and the converter [71].
controller, and by implementing a suitable control logic a The converter operates at UPF.
THD of 4.5% with a PF of 0.993 is obtained. The overall An improved power quality on-board charger [72] is
efficiency of the converter is 94%. introduced where, in the charging mode, the motor winding
An on-board off-board combination of charger is pro- acts as an input filter and the three-phase Voltage Source
posed [66] for conveniently using the utility power with Converter acts as a bidirectional AC–DC converter. A
proper galvanic isolation. A contactless energy transfer comparative study with the conventional buck converter
system is implemented whose primary winding is con- shows that the switching stress has reduced to half, ripple
nected to supply through an active rectifier circuit (off- current reduced to  times and the ripple voltage has
board) and whose secondary winding (on-board) is inte- reduced to 1/8 times that of conventional buck converter.
grated with the traction inverter. The circuit diagram brings The inductor and capacitor values were also proved to be
limitation of structure complexity. reduced.
Different topologies of integrated on-board chargers are A reconfigurable power converter with reduced number
reviewed and their features are summarized in [67]. Also a of switches is proposed [73] for on-board chargers in low-
new single-phase integrated charger based on AC motor is voltage EVs. The power converter uses a three-phase
proposed in which a quasi-Z-source network is realized for inverter for propulsion mode, which can be reconfigured as
regulating the output voltage. During charging mode the a boost rectifier cascaded with a DC–DC converter as
two legs of the traction inverter are used for PFC, motor shown in figure 9. A unified control scheme is proposed that
windings act as a grid side filter inductor and third leg of combines the PFC as well as the optimal CC–CV charging
the inverter is connected to an inductor and capacitor, during the charging mode. A near-UPF is obtained using
which forms an Active Power Filter. THD of grid side this control. The total number of switches used for this
current is found to be 1.46% and the system works with topology is reduced to 8, thereby reducing the size and
UPF. weight of the converter.
A single-phase bidirectional integrated on-board charger
is utilized for a nine-phase inverter without any need of
additional components [68]. The charging mode efficiency
4.2 Control methods of bidirectional on-board
is around 90%. The converter provides V2G operation with
an efficiency of 92%. The system does not require any chargers
hardware rearrangement while switching from driving The power electronic components [74, 75] that form the
mode to charging mode. part of an EV drive train aid the vehicle to operate in all the
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 9 of 14 26

Figure 8. Modified bridgeless cuk-converter-fed EV charger [70].

Figure 9. Reconfigurable power converter with reduced number of switches [73].

four quadrants [76], i.e., forward motoring, forward brak- additional amount of energy from the supply is required to
ing, reverse motoring and reverse braking. In the first and develop the negative torque. In dynamic braking, the
third quadrants both speed and torque have the same sign vehicle is brought to braking mode by dissipating the
and therefore the power is positive, providing the motoring kinetic energy of the motor moving parts in the form of heat
mode. In second and fourth quadrants the power is nega- energy through braking resistance. The main disadvantage
tive, providing the braking mode [77]. of this method is that the kinetic energy is wasted as heat.
In EVs, precise braking control is also important along In regenerative braking, which is the third type of electric
with the start. Braking is nothing but restricting the motion braking, the motor develops a negative torque, thereby
of the vehicle as quickly as possible. Braking can be acting as a generator, and the generated energy is fed back
mechanical braking or electric braking. In an EV, com- to the source. Regenerative braking can be effectively uti-
posite braking is used; it combines electric braking and lized for energy regeneration if it is properly controlled
mechanical braking. Vehicles are slowed down using using power electronic circuits. It improves the overall
electric braking and then mechanical brakes are applied. efficiency and can extend the driving range of EVs [78, 79].
Electric braking is classified into plugging, dynamic Regenerative braking can be effectively controlled and
braking and regenerative braking. In plugging the electric utilized with a hybrid energy storage system (HESS).
motor is reconnected to the supply so that it produces a To provide the regenerative braking control a bidirec-
negative torque, which is opposite to the direction of tional DC–DC converter is used in the drive train, which
motion. The main disadvantage of this method is that the steps up the battery voltage for high-efficiency operation
kinetic energy of the motor moving parts is wasted and an throughout the range of the vehicle. Also, the bidirectional
 26 Page 10 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

DC–DC converter allows reversal of power flow and con- the BLDC motor through a DC–DC converter. During
trol of the braking current [80]. braking mode, the energy is fed back from the motor to the
A novel line-commutated thyristor-based Voltage Source battery through the same DC–DC converter.
Converter has been proposed [81], which has bidirectional An Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy System is developed [88],
power flow capability. The switches are operated with which is an efficient control method for EV drive trains.
6-pulse phase control. As the output DC voltage is con- The driving range is extended to about 50% by utilizing the
trolled, amount and direction of power flow is automati- regenerative braking energy to charge the energy storage
cally controlled. The converter does not have commutation system.
overlaps but it faces the major problem of commutation Another effective method of regenerative braking energy
failure. The commutation failure relates to the input current harvesting strategy is proposed [89] in HESS. HESS
and a current phase control method is necessary to over- improves the charging and discharging performance of the
come the commutation failure problem. energy sources. Using a proper switching template for the
A fully soft switched bidirectional converter is developed inverter, the kinetic energy of EV is harvested by the
[82], which acts as a boost converter. It drives the motor supercapacitor during braking. The proposed control strat-
with high speed and torque during motoring mode and act egy with PWM technique helps to maintain a constant
as a buck converter to tap the regenerative braking energy, torque operation.
which charges the battery during braking mode. This con- An integrated power converter is proposed [90] for
verter act as an interface circuit between DC bus and bat- Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) drive, which has inte-
tery in HEV to control the charging and discharging grated motoring, regenerative braking and charging capa-
current. bility. The integrated topology consists of buck front-end
An effective regenerative braking control strategy is DC–DC converter, a Modified Asymmetrical Half-Bridge
proposed for a light EV with a single-stage DC–AC con- Converter, battery source, SRM and the single-phase AC
verter along with a three-phase inverter [83]. It has three grid connector. In the regenerative braking mode, the motor
different switching strategies: single switch, two switches will be controlled as a generator by removing the excitation
and three switches. Variable braking control strategy is signals of the active switches. The motor current will flow
implemented depending on the driving conditions. Differ- through the upper diode and the battery source and all the
ent driving parameters such as reliability, braking torque braking energy will be fed back to the source. Since the
and cruising distance can be improved effectively using this braking energy flows in the decreasing inductance region,
variable braking strategy. negative braking torque will be generated; the regenerative
Another regenerative braking methodology was proposed braking mode is obtained by this and thereby motor speed
[84] for the DC drive system, which consists of a series reduces.
active power rectifier and a four-quadrant chopper con- An innovative single-stage integrated on-board charger is
nected to the DC motor. The system delivers sinusoidal proposed [91] for on-board chargers, which reduces size,
input current, thereby providing UPF. It has the capability weight and number of components of power electronics
of bidirectional power flow, reduced dc link voltage ripple circuits used in EVs. The proposed converter operates in
in any operating condition, faster control response and boost and buck operation in motoring and braking modes.
disturbance compensation capability. The boost operation during regenerating braking mode
Digital simulation of a small EV is presented [85], where helps to capture the energy even at low speeds. The boost
the traction chain consists of a battery, bidirectional DC– and buck operations during regenerative braking mode are
DC converter and DC motor. The simulation results show similar to the reverse motoring operation in the propulsion
that the speed regulator gives good performance on the mode.
speed tracking, accuracy and the rejection of disturbance A constant braking current control strategy is introduced
load. for EV [92], which basically performs the control of
An instantaneous switching mode bidirectional Boost/ armature current. A duty ratio control law is performed for
SEPIC converter was proposed [86] for incorporation in an the braking current control and in order to make the current
EV drive train as shown in figure 10 to switch instanta- constant, the duty ratio should be gradually climbing.
neously from motoring mode to regenerative braking mode Simulation is done on a MATLAB/Simulink platform and
and vice versa. Maximum power is extracted even with low the results validate the theoretical analysis. The speed is
speed and energy regenerated is used to charge the ultra- found to decrease continuously during the braking process
capacitor. The converter works as a boost converter during and the terminal voltage of the supercapacitor increases
motoring operation and as a SEPIC converter during continuously, which shows that energy regeneration hap-
braking. pens during the braking process.
Fuzzy logic control of a bidirectional buck boost con- An efficient and novel method to distribute the braking
verter is introduced [87] for a Brushless DC (BLDC) drive force is proposed [93] and a performance map of the motor
where all the four-quadrant operations are possible. During and its controller is found to define a boundary for blending
motoring mode, the battery provides maximum power to regenerative braking and friction braking energy, thereby
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 11 of 14 26

Figure 10. Block diagram of Electric Vehicle with instantaneous mode switching bidirectional Boost/SEPIC converter [86].

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