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Defining Critical Thinking

Critical thinking...the awakening of the intellect to the study of itself.

Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the
past 2,500 years. The term “critical thinking” has its roots in the mid-late
20th century. Below, we offer overlapping definitions which together form
a substantive and trans-disciplinary conception of critical thinking.

Critical Thinking as Defined by the National Council for Excellence in

Critical Thinking, 1987

A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8 th

Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education
Reform, Summer 1987:

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and

skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or
evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief
and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual
values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy,
precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth,
breadth, and fairness.
It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought
implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue;
assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to
conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative
viewpoints; and frame of reference. Critical thinking — in being responsive
to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes — is incorporated in a
family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking,
mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking,
economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.

Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of

information and belief generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit,
based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior.
It is thus to be contrasted with: 1) the mere acquisition and retention of
information alone, because it involves a particular way in which
information is sought and treated; 2) the mere possession of a set of skills,
because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the mere use of
those skills (“as an exercise”) without acceptance of their results.

Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When

grounded in selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skillful
manipulation of ideas in service of one’s own, or one’s groups’, vested
interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically
successful it might be. When grounded in fairmindedness and intellectual
integrity, it is typically of a higher order intellectually, though subject to
the charge of “idealism” by those habituated to its selfish use.

Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone

is subject to episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is
therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent on, among other
things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking
or with respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical
thinker through-and-through, but only to such-and-such a degree, with
such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-such
tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of
critical thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor.

Another Brief Conceptualization of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to

reason at the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way. People who
think critically consistently attempt to live rationally, reasonably,
empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of
human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power
of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual
tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable
them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to
develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual
humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of
justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled
they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and
they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality,
prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and
taboos, self-interest, and vested interest. They strive to improve the
world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational,
civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often
inherent in doing so. They avoid thinking simplistically about complicated
issues and strive to appropriately consider the rights and needs of
relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as
thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-
improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life
is not worth living , because they realize that many unexamined lives
together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world.

~ Linda Elder, September, 2007

Why Critical Thinking?

The Problem

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to
itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced.
Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build
depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly,
both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must
be systematically cultivated.

A Definition

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or

problem – in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking
by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and
imposing intellectual standards upon them.

The Result

A well cultivated critical thinker:

Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and

precisely;

Gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to

interpret it effectively comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions,
testing them against relevant criteria and standards;

Thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing

and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical
consequences; and

Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex

problems.

Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored,

and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of
excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective
communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to
overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.

(Taken from Richard Paul and Linda Elder, The Miniature Guide to Critical
Thinking Concepts and Tools, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 2008)

Critical Thinking Defined by Edward Glaser

In a seminal study on critical thinking and education in 1941, Edward

Glaser defines critical thinking as follows “The ability to think critically, as
conceived in this volume, involves three things: ( 1 ) an attitude of being
disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that
come within the range of one’s experiences, (2) knowledge of the
methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3) some skill in applying
those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine
any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that
supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. It also generally
requires ability to recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting
those problems, to gather and marshal pertinent information, to recognize
unstated assumptions and values, to comprehend and use language with
accuracy, clarity, and discrimination, to interpret data, to appraise
evidence and evaluate arguments, to recognize the existence (or non-
existence) of logical relationships between propositions, to draw
warranted conclusions and generalizations, to put to test the conclusions
and generalizations at which one arrives, to reconstruct one’s patterns of
beliefs on the basis of wider experience, and to render accurate
judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life.

( Edward M. Glaser, An Experiment in the Development of Critical

Thinking, Teacher’s College, Columbia University, 1941)

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CRITICAL THINKING IS AT RISK.

Here are some of the big reasons why:

Many people believe that critical thinking should be free and that scholars
qualified to teach critical thinking should do so for free. Accordingly, they
do not think they should have to pay for critical thinking textbooks,
courses, or other resources when there is “so much free material online” –
despite how erroneous that material may be.

There are many misguided academicians, and some outright charlatans,

pushing forth and capitalizing on a pseudo-, partial, or otherwise
impoverished concept of critical thinking.

Little to no funding is designated for critical thinking professional

development in schools, colleges, or universities, despite the lip service
widely given to critical thinking (as is frequently found in mission
statements).

Most people, including faculty, think they already know what critical
thinking is, despite how few have studied it to any significant degree, and
despite how few can articulate a coherent, accurate, and sufficiently deep
explanation of it.

People rarely exhibit the necessary level of discipline to study and use
critical thinking for reaching higher levels of self-actualization. In part, this
is due to wasting intellectual and emotional energy on fruitless electronic
entertainment designed to be addictive and profitable rather than
educational and uplifting.

On the whole, fairminded critical thinking is neither understood, fostered,

nor valued in educational institutions or societies.

People are increasingly able to cluster themselves with others of like mind
through alluring internet platforms that enable them to validate one
another’s thinking – even when their reasoning is nonsensical, lopsided,
prejudiced, or even dangerous.

Critical thinking does not yet hold an independent place in academia.

Instead, “critical thinking” is continually being “defined” and redefined
according to any academic area or instructor that, claiming (frequently
unsupported) expertise, steps forward to teach it.

As you see, increasingly powerful trends against the teaching, learning,

and practice of critical thinking entail extraordinary challenges to our
mission. To continue our work, we must now rely upon your financial
support. If critical thinking matters to you, please click here to contribute
what you can today.
WE NEED YOUR HELP TO CONTINUE OUR WORK.

Thank you for your support of ethical critical thinking.

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