Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES

Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Definition of Energy Storage
Energy storage refers to the process of capturing energy produced at one time for use at a later time.
Energy Storage Systems (ESS) encompass a range of technologies that convert energy, typically electrical
energy, into a form that can be stored (e.g., potential, kinetic, chemical, thermal) and then convert it
back into usable electrical energy when needed. The interface between the storage medium and the

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electrical grid is almost always managed by sophisticated power electronics converters, which handle
charging, discharging, and grid synchronization.

4.1.2 The Imperative for Energy Storage in Sustainable Systems

The transition towards sustainable energy systems heavily relies on Variable Renewable Energy Sources

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(VRES) like solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind turbines. Unlike dispatchable conventional generators,
VRES output is intermittent and often non-coincident with electricity demand patterns. This mismatch
poses significant challenges to the stability, reliability, and power quality of the electrical grid. A classic
illustration of this challenge, particularly with high solar penetration, is the ”Duck Curve” (Figure 4.1),
which shows a sharp decrease in net load (total load minus VRE generation) during midday solar peaks
and a steep ramp-up required from conventional generation or storage in the evening.
Energy storage acts as a crucial buffer:
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• It absorbs surplus energy during periods of high VRE generation or low demand.
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• It injects stored energy back into the grid during periods of low VRE generation or high demand.
By decoupling generation from consumption, ESS enables higher penetration of renewables, enhances
grid flexibility, and contributes to the decarbonization of the power sector.
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Excess Solar Energy,

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Grid demand drops

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Less Solar Energy,

Grid demand rises

Fig. 4.1. Conceptual ”Duck Curve” illustrating the growing mid-day dip and evening ramp challenge
in net load due to increasing solar PV penetration.

1 – © (2025) M. H. Jewel, Associate Prof, Dept. of EEE, JUST

Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
4.2 The Need for Energy Storage in Power Systems
(i) Addressing Renewable Energy Intermittency
The variable nature (weather-dependent) of solar and wind energy necessitates mechanisms to ensure a
continuous and reliable power supply. ESS provides this by:
• Energy Time-Shifting: Storing excess VRE generation when available (e.g., midday solar) and
discharging it during peak demand periods or when VRE output is low (e.g., evening).
• Smoothing VRE Output: Mitigating rapid fluctuations (ramps) in VRE power output caused
by transient weather events (e.g., cloud cover passing over a solar farm), which helps maintain grid
stability.

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(ii) Grid Balancing, Stability, and Ancillary Services
Modern power grids require precise real-time balancing of generation and load to maintain stable fre-
quency (e.g., 50 Hz) and voltage profiles within acceptable limits. Fast-responding ESS, controlled via
advanced power electronics, are increasingly vital for providing ancillary services:

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• Frequency Regulation: Rapid injection or absorption of active power (kW) to counteract fre-
quency deviations caused by sudden generation-load imbalances. ESS offers faster and more accu-
rate response compared to conventional generators.
• Voltage Support: Injection or absorption of reactive power (VAR) to maintain local grid voltage
levels, particularly important in areas with high VRE penetration or weak grid infrastructure.
• Operating Reserves: Providing spinning, non-spinning, or supplemental reserves that can be
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dispatched quickly to cover generation shortfalls or unexpected load increases.
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• Inertial Response: Synthetically providing inertia through power electronic controls (virtual
inertia) to slow down the rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) during disturbances, enhancing grid
stability as synchronous generator inertia declines.
• Black Start Capability: Providing power to restart parts of the grid following a major blackout,
without relying on external power sources.
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(iii) Other functionalities

Beyond VRE integration and grid services, ESS serves numerous economic and operational functions:
• Peak Shaving / Demand Charge Management: Reducing electricity consumption from the
grid during peak hours, thereby lowering electricity bills for consumers (especially commercial and
industrial) facing demand charges ($/kW).
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• Energy Arbitrage: Exploiting electricity price differentials by charging during low-price periods
(e.g., overnight, high VRE output) and discharging during high-price periods.
• Transmission and Distribution (T&D) Deferral: Installing ESS at strategic locations to al-
leviate grid congestion or meet local peak demand, potentially delaying or avoiding costly upgrades
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to lines and substations.

• Increased PV Self-Consumption: Enabling residential or commercial users with rooftop solar
PV to store excess daytime generation for use during evenings or cloudy periods, maximizing the
value of their PV system.
• Backup Power and Resilience: Providing uninterruptible power supply (UPS) during grid
outages, enhancing energy security for critical loads or entire facilities/microgrids.

4.3 Energy Storage Technologies

ESS technologies are diverse, storing energy in different forms. This is the dominant technology for EVs,
consumer electronics, and grid storage. ESS can be categorized into various types based on the form of
energy stored as given in Table 1.

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
Table 1: Energy Storage System Types and Applications

Type Example Technologies Applications

Mechanical Pumped Hydro Energy Storage Grid balancing, frequency regulation
(PHES), Flywheels
Electrochemical Lithium-ion, Lead-acid, Flow batter- Renewable integration, peak shaving
ies
Electrical Supercapacitors, Superconducting Short-term power quality manage-
Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) ment
Thermal Molten salt, Ice storage Load shifting, CHP systems
Chemical Hydrogen, Power-to-Gas Long-duration storage, fuel cell

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backup

4.3.1 Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES)

PHES is one of the most mature and widely deployed forms of large-scale energy storage. It plays a
critical role in enhancing the flexibility, stability, and reliability of power systems, especially with the

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increasing integration of intermittent renewable energy sources like solar and wind.

4.3.1.1 Working Principle

A PHES facility as shown in Fig. 4.2 consists of two water reservoirs located at different elevations—an
upper and a lower reservoir—interconnected by penstocks and equipped with reversible pump-turbine
units. The system operates similarly to a large rechargeable battery.
During the charging or pumping mode, off-peak electricity or surplus renewable energy is used
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to power pumps that transfer water from the lower reservoir to the upper one. This process converts
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electrical energy into stored gravitational potential energy.
When electricity demand is high or renewable generation falls short, the system enters the discharg-
ing or generating mode. In this phase, water from the upper reservoir flows back down through
turbines, driving generators to produce electricity. The system is predominantly a closed-loop cycle,
allowing the same volume of water to be reused repeatedly in charge–discharge operations.
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Fig. 4.2. Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES) systems.

4.3.1.2 Stored Potential Energy

The amount of energy stored as gravitational potential energy in the upper reservoir is given by:

Ep = ρ · g · V · H (1)
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where, Ep is the stored energy (in joules, J), ρ is the density of water (approximately 1000 kg/m ), g
is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 ), V is the volume of water (m3 ), and H is the vertical head
or elevation difference between reservoirs (m).

3 – © (2025) M. H. Jewel, Associate Prof, Dept. of EEE, JUST

Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
4.3.1.3 Pros and Cons
• Pros: Mature, largest installed capacity globally, very large scale (GW h), long lifespan (50+years),
moderate round-trip efficiency (70% to 85%), relatively low Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS)
for large-scale projects.
• Cons: Geographic constraints (requires elevation difference, water, land), significant capital in-
vestment, potential environmental impact.

4.3.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries (Li-ion)

Lithium-Ion Batteries (Li-ion) are electrochemical energy storage systems widely deployed in portable
electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and increasingly in grid-scale applications due to their high energy

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density and efficiency.

4.3.2.1 Working Principle

A Li-ion battery cell as shown in Fig. 4.3 consists of two electrodes: a cathode (positive electrode) and
an anode (negative electrode), separated by an electrolyte and a porous separator. During the charging

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process, lithium ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte while electrons flow
externally, storing energy in chemical form. During the discharging process, the ions migrate back to
the cathode, and electrons flow through the external load, providing electrical power.
This process is based on the principle of intercalation (insertion/extraction), where lithium ions
are inserted into and extracted from the electrode materials in a reversible manner. The closed-cell
configuration enables multiple charge-discharge cycles with high efficiency.
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Fig. 4.3. Li-ion battery cell.

4.3.2.2 Stored Energy

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The total energy stored in a lithium-ion battery is given by:

E =C ·V (2)
where, E is the stored energy (in watt-hours, Wh), C is the battery capacity (in ampere-hours, Ah), and
V is the nominal voltage (in volts, V).

4.3.2.3 Pros and Cons

• Pros: High energy density (100 W h kg−1 to 250 W h kg−1 ), high round-trip efficiency (85 % to
95 %), long cycle life (1,000 to 10,000 cycles), rapidly declining costs, modular scalability.
• Cons: Safety concerns (thermal runaway risk requires sophisticated Battery Management Sys-
tems (BMS) and thermal management), performance degradation over time and with temperature
extremes, cost still a factor for large-scale/long-duration, resource concerns (Li, Co, Ni).

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
4.3.3 Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
Thermal Energy Storage (TES) is a technology that stores excess thermal energy for later use. TES
systems store energy in the form of heat (or cold) by heating or cooling a storage medium and then
extracting that energy when required.

4.3.3.1 Working Principle and Stored Energy

There are three primary types of TES as given below:

(i) Sensible Heat Storage

• Principle: Stores energy by changing the temperature of a solid or liquid medium (e.g., water,

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molten salts, concrete, rocks) without changing its phase.

• Energy Stored:
Q = mcp ∆T (3)
−1 −1
where Q is heat energy (J), m is mass (kg), cp is specific heat capacity (J kg K ), and ∆T is
temperature change (K or ◦ C).

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(ii) Latent Heat Storage (PCM)
• Principle: Stores energy using the heat absorbed/released during a phase transition (e.g., solid-
liquid) of a Phase Change Material (PCM) at a nearly constant temperature.
• Energy Stored (during phase change):
, Q = mL (4)
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where L is the specific latent heat (J kg−1 ).

(iii) Thermochemical Storage

• Principle: Stores energy via reversible endothermic/exothermic chemical reactions. Potentially
very high energy density and long-term storage capability, but technologically less mature.
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4.3.3.2 Round-Trip Efficiency

The round-trip efficiency of a TES system is defined as the ratio of energy released during discharge to
the energy absorbed during charging:
Qout
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ηRT = (5)
Qin
Typical round-trip efficiency values include:
• Sensible heat storage: 85–99% (especially with high insulation),

• Latent heat storage: 75–90%,

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• Thermochemical storage: 50–75%.

4.3.3.3 Applications
TES is applied in various sectors, including:

• Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants (e.g., molten salt storage),

• District heating and cooling systems,
• Building HVAC systems (e.g., ice or hot water storage),
• Industrial thermal process balancing.

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
4.3.4 Supercapacitors (Ultracapacitors)
Supercapacitors are energy storage devices that fill the gap between conventional capacitors and batteries.
They can deliver quick bursts of energy and recharge in seconds to minutes, making them ideal for
applications requiring high power density and rapid charge/discharge cycles.

4.3.4.1 Working Principle

Supercapacitors are also known as ultracapacitors or electric double-layer capacitors, EDLCs. They
consist of two electrodes, a separator, and an electrolyte. They store energy electrostatically by accumu-
lating charge at the interface between high-surface-area electrodes and an electrolyte. Energy storage is
physical, not chemical (unlike batteries).

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4.3.4.2 Stored Energy
The energy stored in a supercapacitor is given by-
1
E= C ·V2 (6)
2

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where, C = Capacitance (F), V = Operating voltage (V)

4.3.4.3 Pros and Cons

• Pros: Extremely fast charging, Very high cycle life (> 1 million), High power density, High round-
trip efficiency (> 95%)
• Cons: Not suitable for long-term storage, Degrades over time (electrolyte breakdown), Lower
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energy density than batteries, Higher self-discharge, Expensive or rare materials
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4.3.4.4 Applications
• Applications requiring very high power and rapid charge/discharge cycles (e.g., regenerative braking
in electric buses or trains, power quality improvement). Example: Shanghai’s trolleybus system
uses supercapacitors for quick charging at stops.
• Often used in hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) paired with batteries to handle peak power
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demands and extend battery life.

4.3.5 Hydrogen (H2 ) Storage

Hydrogen is a clean and high-energy-density fuel that can play a key role in decarbonizing industries,
transportation, and power generation. However, its low density and high flammability make storage a
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major challenge.

4.3.5.1 Working Principle (Power-to-Gas-to-Power – P2G2P)

Electricity—often surplus from variable renewable energy (VRE)—is used to produce hydrogen via an
electrolysis process that requires DC power. The hydrogen production system, including the electrolyzer
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and fuel cell is depicted in Fig. 4.4. The produced hydrogen is stored in various forms (compressed gas,
liquefied, metal hydrides, or chemical carriers such as ammonia). It is then reconverted to electricity
using fuel cells (producing DC) or combustion turbines/engines (producing AC). The Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) is one of the most promising hydrogen production techniques.

• Electrolysis (e.g., PEM):

Electricity
2H2 O(l) −−−−−−→ 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

• Fuel Cell (e.g., PEM):

Catalyst
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) −−−−−→ 2H2 O(l) + Electricity + Heat

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES

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Fig. 4.4. Hydrogen storage system from electrolyzer to fuel cell.

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4.3.5.2 Pros and Cons
• Pros: Enables very long-duration (e.g., seasonal) storage, high energy density by mass, serves as a
versatile energy carrier (applicable for electricity, heating, transport fuel, and industrial feedstock).
• Cons: Low electrical round-trip efficiency (30 % to 50 % for the full P2G2P cycle due to multiple
energy conversions), high capital costs (electrolyzers, storage systems, and reconversion units),
infrastructure and transport challenges, and safety concerns due to hydrogen’s flammability and
storage requirements.
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4.3.5.3 Applications
Grid-scale energy storage (especially long-duration and seasonal), backup power systems, fuel for hydrogen-
powered vehicles (FCEVs), industrial processes (e.g., ammonia production, refining), and heating.

4.4 Key Performance Metrics of ESS

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This section details the fundamental Key Performance Metrics (KPMs) used to characterize ESS, focus-
ing primarily on electrochemical storage (batteries), which is the most prevalent type for many electrical
engineering applications. Understanding these metrics is essential for system design, integration, eco-
nomic analysis, and operational management.
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4.4.1 Energy Capacity (Rated or Nominal Energy)

• Definition: The total amount of electrical energy an ESS can store under specified conditions
(e.g., temperature, discharge rate).

• Units: Typically kilowatt-hours (kW h) or megawatt-hours (MW h) for grid-scale systems; Ampere-
hours (A h) multiplied by nominal voltage (V) can also represent energy, especially at the cell/module
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level.
• Significance: Determines how long the ESS can supply power at a given rate or serve a specific
energy demand (e.g., powering a home overnight, peak shaving duration).

• Note: Usable Energy Capacity is often less than the rated capacity due to operational constraints
like Depth of Discharge limits (see Section 4.4.5).

4.4.2 Power Capacity (Rated or Nominal Power)

• Definition: The maximum continuous rate at which an ESS can discharge (deliver power) or charge
(absorb power) under specified conditions. Systems often have separate charge and discharge power
ratings.

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
• Units: Typically kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW).
• Significance: Determines the ability of the ESS to meet instantaneous power demands or ab-
sorb surplus power quickly. Crucial for applications like frequency regulation, voltage support, or
powering high-load devices.

4.4.3 C-Rate
Power capability is often expressed relative to energy capacity using the C-rate.
• Definition: A measure of the rate at which an ESS is charged or discharged relative to its nominal
energy capacity (typically in A h or kW h). A rate of 1C means discharge/charge would complete
in 1 hour if sustained.

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• Calculation: The C-rate is calculated as:
Power (P )
C-rate = [h−1 ] (7)
Energy Capacity (E)

For example, using kW for power and kW h for energy.

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• Example: A 100 kW h battery discharging at 50 kW has a C-rate of 50 kW / 100 kW h = 0.5 h−1 ,
commonly written as C/2 or 0.5C. Discharging at 100 kW is 1C, and at 200 kW is 2C. Charging at
25 kW is C/4 or 0.25C.
• Significance: Higher C-rates generally lead to lower efficiency and potentially faster degradation.
Datasheets specify maximum allowable C-rates for charging and discharging.
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4.4.4 Round-Trip Efficiency (RTE)
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• Definition: The ratio of the total electrical energy discharged by the ESS to the total electrical
energy required to charge it, over one complete charge-discharge cycle under specified conditions.
 
Edischarged
RTE (%) = × 100% (8)
Echarged
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• Units: Percentage (%).

• Significance: Represents the overall energy efficiency of the storage process. Higher RTE means
lower energy losses and better economic performance. Losses occur due to internal resistance
(I 2 R losses), auxiliary systems (cooling, monitoring), power conversion (AC/DC and DC/AC),
and electrochemical side reactions.
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• Factors: RTE is influenced by C-rate (lower efficiency at higher rates), temperature, state of
charge (SoC), and system age (degradation).

4.4.5 Depth of Discharge (DoD)

• Definition: The percentage of the total stored energy that has been discharged from the ESS,
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relative to its maximum capacity (at that point in its life).

 
Edischarged from full
DoD (%) = × 100% (9)
Ecurrent max capacity

Often simplified relative to rated capacity for operational targets.

• Units: Percentage (%).
• Significance: DoD is inversely related to State of Charge (SoC). Importantly, operating an ESS
(especially batteries) at consistently high DoD levels (e.g., frequently discharging to near 0 %
SoC) significantly accelerates degradation and reduces cycle life. Manufacturers often specify rec-
ommended maximum DoD for optimal lifespan. Usable energy capacity is often limited by the
maximum allowable DoD.

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
4.4.6 State of Charge (SoC)
• Definition: The current level of charge in an ESS relative to its maximum possible charge (current
maximum capacity).  
Ecurrent stored
SoC (%) = × 100% (10)
Ecurrent max capacity

• Often related to DoD (assuming starting from fully charged):

SoC = 100 % − DoD (11)

• Units: Percentage (%).

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• Significance: Essential for operation and control. The Battery Management System (BMS)
continuously estimates SoC to manage charging/discharging, prevent over-charge or over-discharge,
and provide user information. Accurate SoC estimation can be complex, relying on voltage, current
integration, and sometimes impedance measurements or model-based techniques.

4.4.7 State of Health (SoH)

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• Definition: A measure of the current condition of an ESS (primarily batteries) compared to
its ideal or beginning-of-life (BoL) condition. It reflects the system’s degradation. SoH is often
expressed in terms of remaining capacity or increased internal resistance relative to the BoL values.
 
Current Max Capacity
SoHCapacity (%) = × 100% (12)
Rated Initial Capacity
 
,
SoHResistance (%) =
Initial Internal Resistance
Current Internal Resistance
× 100% (13)
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(Note the inverse relationship for resistance-based SoH).
• Units: Percentage (%).
• Significance: Indicates the aging and degradation of the ESS. Used for predicting remaining useful
life, scheduling maintenance, and assessing warranty conditions. End-of-life (EoL) for an ESS is
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often defined when SoH drops below a certain threshold (e.g., 70 % to 80 % of initial capacity).

4.4.8 Cycle Life

• Definition: The number of complete charge-discharge cycles an ESS can perform before its capac-
ity degrades to a specified end-of-life threshold (e.g., 80 % SoH), under defined operating conditions
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(e.g., DoD, C-rate, temperature).

• Units: Number of cycles.
• Significance: Critical for applications involving frequent cycling (e.g., grid frequency regulation,
daily solar energy shifting). Cycle life is heavily dependent on DoD (deeper discharges reduce cycle
life significantly, often non-linearly), C-rate, temperature, and operating SoC range. Datasheets
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typically provide cycle life curves or values under specific test conditions.

4.4.9 Response Time

• Definition: The time delay between receiving a control signal (e.g., to charge or discharge at a
certain power level) and the ESS actually reaching a specified percentage (e.g., 90 %) of that target
power output/input.
• Units: Milliseconds (ms) or seconds (s).
• Significance: Crucial for applications requiring rapid power adjustments, such as grid frequency
regulation, voltage support, synthetic inertia, or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
Battery systems generally offer very fast response times (milliseconds) compared to traditional
generators (seconds to minutes).

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES
4.4.10 Energy Density
• Definition: The amount of energy stored per unit volume (Volumetric Energy Density) or per
unit mass (Gravimetric Energy Density).

• Units:
– Volumetric: W h L−1 (Wh/L) or kW h m−3 (kWh/m3 ).
– Gravimetric: W h kg−1 (Wh/kg).
• Significance: Critical for applications where space or weight are constraints, such as electric
vehicles (EVs), portable electronics, and aerospace applications. Higher energy density allows for
longer range in EVs or longer runtime in devices for the same size/weight.

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4.4.11 Power Density
• Definition: The amount of power available per unit volume (Volumetric Power Density) or per
unit mass (Gravimetric Power Density).
• Units:

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– Volumetric: W L−1 (W/L) or kW m−3 (kW/m3 ).
– Gravimetric: W kg−1 (W/kg).
• Significance: Important for applications requiring high power output from a compact or lightweight
package (e.g., power tools, hybrid vehicle acceleration, fast frequency response). Note that tech-
nologies often involve a trade-off between energy density and power density (e.g., supercapacitors
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have high power density but low energy density, while some battery chemistries are the opposite).
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4.4.12 Cost Metrics
• Capital Cost (CAPEX): Initial investment cost, often expressed per unit of energy capacity
(e.g., $/kWh) or power rating (e.g., $/kW). This includes the cost of hardware, installation, power
electronics, battery management system (BMS), and other associated components.

• Operational Cost (OPEX): Ongoing expenses for maintenance, system operation, auxiliary
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power usage, and potential component replacements (e.g., battery module augmentation).
• Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS): The average cost per unit of energy discharged over the
system’s lifetime. It accounts for CAPEX, OPEX, charging energy cost, efficiency, degradation,
discount rate, and total discharged energy. LCOS is a key economic metric to compare different
storage technologies and use-cases.
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PN CAPEXt +OPEXt +ChargeCostt

t=0 (1+r)t
LCOS = PN Edischarged,t [$/MWh] (14)
t=0 (1+r)t

where N is the project lifetime in years, r is the discount rate, and t represents each year in the
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analysis.

4.5 Battery Management System (BMS)

A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic control unit that ensures the safe and
efficient operation of rechargeable battery packs, particularly in applications such as electric vehicles,
renewable energy systems, and portable electronics. It performs critical functions including monitoring,
protection, and control, thereby extending battery life and preventing operational hazards or damage.
Figure 4.5 illustrates a typical block diagram of a BMS. The major components and their function-
alities are discussed below:

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Chapter 4: Energy Storage Systems EEE 3109:RES

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Fig. 4.5. Typical Block Diagram of a BMS.

1. Battery Pack (Cells/Modules):

This is the core energy storage component, consisting of multiple cells connected in series and/or
parallel to meet voltage and capacity requirements. The BMS manages the performance and safety
of these cells.
2. Monitoring Unit:
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The BMS continuously monitors critical battery parameters including voltage, current, and tem-
perature through integrated sensors. Proper monitoring prevents issues like overcharging, deep
discharging, and overheating.
3. Cell Balancing Unit:
This unit ensures uniform voltage levels across all cells. It operates either passively (dissipating
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excess energy as heat) or actively (redistributing charge between cells), thus improving efficiency
and lifespan.
4. Microcontroller (Control Unit):
Serving as the brain of the BMS, the microcontroller processes sensor data, executes control algo-
rithms, and manages protective actions. It also estimates the State of Charge (SoC) and State of
Health (SoH) of the battery.
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5. Protection Circuitry:
This circuitry safeguards the battery by disconnecting it during fault conditions such as overcurrent,
short circuits, or extreme temperatures. It typically uses relays or MOSFETs for safe isolation.
6. Communication Interface:
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Enables the BMS to communicate with external systems including vehicle control units and charg-
ers. Communication is typically achieved via standard protocols such as CAN (Controller Area
Network) or LIN (Local Interconnect Network).

4.6 Conclusion
Energy Storage Systems are vital for building sustainable and resilient power systems. They support
renewable integration, enhance grid flexibility, and offer scalable solutions across various applications.
While challenges remain in cost, duration, and sustainability, ongoing innovations continue to strengthen
their role in achieving a reliable and low-carbon energy future.

11 – © (2025) M. H. Jewel, Associate Prof, Dept. of EEE, JUST