Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Chapter 8: Basic energy and light

Light is a form of energy that may be transmitted through space without the need of any material
or substance to help propagate it. Such energy transfer is known as radiation. There are various
forms of radiation, some such as nuclear a and b radiation is a stream of particles, whilst light and
other forms of electromagnetic radiation are propagated by waves. Light is generally considered
to be electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range 380 to 780 nm, where a nano-
metre (nm) is 10–9 m. However, in certain respects, light behaves like a stream of particles, called
photons. This dual nature of light is quite complex and an in-depth knowledge of quantum
mechanics is needed before attempting a more detailed description. Thus, in this chapter, most
of the description of light will look at the wave properties of light and one section will look at the
quantum properties where light behaves like a stream of particles. This dual wave particle nature
is true for all electromagnetic radiation. The key point that separates light from the rest of the
electromagnetic spectrum is the fact that the human eye is sensitive to it. Figure 8.1 show how
light relates to the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Violet Blue Green Yellow Red

380 400 500 600 700 760

Wavelength (nm)

Visible
light

Gamma rays X-rays Ultraviolet Infrared Radio

10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104

Wavelength (m)

Figure 8.1 Light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum

8.1 Properties of electromagnetic waves

Like all electromagnetic radiation, light travels through a vacuum in straight lines1 at a speed of
approximately 3×108 m·s–1. In any medium such as glass, air or water, the speed will be lower
by a factor known as the refractive index of the medium. As with any wave, electromagnetic
radiation may be characterised by its wavelength (l) and its frequency (n). Frequency, wavelength
and velocity (v) are related by equation 8.1

v = n×l (8.1)

1
This is true for all practical terrestrial purposes, however, under certain circumstances light may bend.
This topic is covered in the general theory of relativity, see Einstein, Albert (1916) ‘Die Grundlage der
allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie’, Annalen der Physik 49.
143
 As light travels from one medium to another, thus changing speed, the frequency stays the same
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

but the wavelength changes. At the boundary between two different media having different
refractive indices (see Figure 8.2), light is split into two paths, and the directions of these new
rays are discussed below.

Incident ray Reflected ray

h1 h1 Refractive
Medium 1 index n1

Medium 2 Refractive
index n2

h2

Refracted ray

Figure 8.2 Reflection and refraction at a boundary between two media

Laws of specular reflection

At a surface that is smooth when compared with the wavelength of the incident radiation,
specular reflection may occur. The following relations hold between the incident ray and the
reflected ray:

z The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of reflection all lie
in the same plane.

z The incident ray and the reflected ray make equal angles with the normal to the surface and
are on opposite sides of it.

The proportion of light reflected at the surface is a function of the angle between the rays and the
normal to the surface and the difference in refractive index between the two media. The amount
of reflected light may be calculated using Frensel’s equations.2

Laws of refraction
Light incident on a smooth surface suffers a change of direction when passing into the second
medium that is governed by the following rules:

z The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of reflection all lie
in the same plane.

2
Frensel’s equations may be found in almost any optical text book, for example, Optics by Hecht and
Zajac, published by Addison Wesley (1974) (ISBN-10 0201028352).
144
z Snell’s law relates the angle of the incident ray to the normal to the angle of the refracted ray to

Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

the normal; this is expressed in equation 8.2:

n1 sin h1 = n2 sin h2 (8.2)

where n1 is the refractive index of the first material, n2 is the refractive index of the second
material, h1 is the angle between the normal to the surface and the incident ray and h2 is the
angle between the normal to the surface and the refracted ray; h1 and h2 lie on opposite sides of
the normal.

These laws of refraction apply to most substances such as glass, liquids and plastics, however, for
certain crystals and other materials under strain, these rules are not followed exactly.

Total reflection
When light passes from a high refractive index medium to a low one, such as from glass to air,
a refracted ray is only possible if the incident angle (h1) is smaller than a value that will give a
refraction angle (h2) of less than 90°; this critical angle (hc) is given by equation 8.3

n2
hc = sin −1   (8.3)
 n1 
If the angle of the incident ray is greater than the critical angle, then all of the light is reflected;
this is known as total internal reflection. This effect has a practical application in a number of
devices, the best known of which is fibre optics.

Dispersion
In general, the refractive index of a substance is a function of frequency of the light. This means
that different colours of light may be refracted in slightly different directions. For a range of
common materials, the refractive index for blue light is higher than that for red. This means that
the change in direction for blue light is greater.

Absorption and scattering

When light passes through a perfect vacuum, there is no loss of energy from the beam, although
a diverging beam will spread out with distance. However, in other media, it may be possible for
the light to interact with the material it is passing through and this causes losses to the beam by
absorption and scattering.

Absorption is caused by the energy in the light being converted into other forms of energy by
interaction with the material. If the material is homogeneous, then for a given wavelength of light
in a parallel beam, the rate of loss follows an exponential curve as given by equation 8.4:

i = i0 e − ax (8.4)

where i0 is the initial intensity of the beam, i the intensity of the beam after passing through
distance x of the medium and a is the linear absorption coefficient.

Scattering is caused by multiple random reflections and refractions in non homogeneous materials.
Examples of where obvious scattering occurs include fog, cloud and smoke in air and suspended
particles in water. Scattering may be wavelength selective due to refraction in the scattering
media; a good example of this is the atmosphere which scatters blue light more than red light;
this gives rise to the blue sky and the red sunset due to scattering by water droplets and dust in
the atmosphere.
145
 Diffuse reflection and transmission
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

When light hits a surface which has irregularities that are greater than the wavelength of the
light, then the light is no longer reflected or refracted in a single direction but it is spread out
in all directions. The degree of scattering is a function of the surface properties and, in general,
any pattern of reflected or transmitted light may be created. If the surface is such that the light is
completely scattered then the surface is known as a perfect or Lambertian diffuser. A key property
of a perfect diffuser is that it has the same luminance in all directions no matter which direction it
is illuminated from. With a perfect diffuser, the luminance of the surface (L) is a function of the
illuminance (E) and the reflectance (s). The relationship is given in equation 8.5:
Es
L= (8.5)
p
Polarisation
Electromagnetic waves may be thought of as waves of an oscillating electric field in a plane
normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. For any given wave, there is a plane that
contains the direction of propagation and the oscillation of the electric field. Most light sources
emit light where the orientation of the planes of polarisation is random; such light is described as
unpolarised. It is possible to select light with a single orientation of the plane of polarisation from
unpolarised light using a number of methods, the most used of which are polarising crystals.
The resultant light is said to be polarised. The way light of different polarisations is reflected in
some specular reflections is different and so it is sometimes possible to use polarisation to remove
reflected glare.

Interference and diffraction

The wave nature of light means that it is possible for wave related phenomena to occur, however,
due to the short wavelength of light it is only in special circumstances that such phenomena are
apparent.

Interference may be seen when a screen is illuminated by two coherent sources of light. This is
typically achieved by passing the light through two narrow slits or reflecting light off a multi
element reflector. To make the pattern of interference as large as possible, it is necessary to
make the slits as close together as possible. There are a number of devices that make use of this
principle including the diffraction gratings in monochrometer and dichroic filters, and the
iridescence on the reflectors in some luminaires is also caused by interference.

Diffraction is the bending of light round the edge of obstacles. The diffraction effects are generally
too small to see but are occasionally visible when using a gobo projector over a very long distance.
Diffraction is an important problem when designing optical instruments.

Quantum phenomena
The wave properties satisfactorily explain why light propagates; however, they do not explain the
processes by which light is radiated and absorbed. It has been shown that when light is emitted
or absorbed, the energy gain or loss is always a discrete amount. This finite amount of energy is
known as a quantum. It may therefore be assumed that light is made up of a series of particles,
known as photons, which have wave like properties but whenever energy is exchanged, they
behave as particles. The energy carried by each photon (Q) is given by equation 8.6:

Q= hn (8.6)

where n is the frequency of the radiation and h is Plank’s constant (6.626068×10–34 m2·kg·s–1).
146
 Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light
8.2 Evaluating energy as light
The eye is not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of light and thus we need to apply a weight-
ing function to the energy at each wavelength so that we can evaluate electromagnetic radiation
as light. Because the human visual response varies at different light levels and from person to
person, photometry requires the definition of representative standard observers. The CIE system
of physical photometry specifies procedures for the quantitative evaluation of optical radiation
in terms of the spectral luminous efficiency functions of two such standard observers. One,
V(l), represents photopic vision and the other, V′(l), scotopic vision. Photopic vision occurs
at luminances over 3 cd·m–2 and scotopic vision happens at luminances below 0.001 cd·m–2. At
luminances between these two values, a more complex set of visual responses occurs known as
mesopic vision. To make matters even more complex, the visual sensitivity varies across the field
of vision, the peripheral field having a larger response at the blue end of the spectrum than the
central part of the visual field. Thus, there are a plethora of possible visual response functions.
However, the one that is used the vast majority of the time is V(l) for photopic vision and
when using such terms as lumens, lux and candelas, it is always the photopic spectral efficiency
function that has been used to calculate the amount of light present. When using photometric
quantities based on any other spectral sensitivity function, it is normal to preface the unit being
used by the name of the function used. Thus, occasionally, you may see terms such as scotopic
candelas.

V(l), for photopic vision and V′(l), for scotopic vision are the only two spectral sensitivity
functions defined by an international standard (ISO, 2005).

The luminous flux associated with electromagnetic radiation may be calculated using equation
8.7 for the photopic condition and equation 8.8 for the scotopic condition.
∞

Wv = K m ∫ We,l ⋅ V ( l ) dl (8.7)
0 ∞

W 'v = K 'm ∫ We,l ⋅ V ' (l ) dl (8.8)

0

where Wv and W′v are the photopic and scotopic luminous flux, respectively, Km and K′m are
constants with values of 683.002 and 1700.005, respectively and V(l) and V′(l) are values
obtained from the values given in Tables 8.1 and 8.2, respectively.

147
 Table 8.1 Values of the spectral luminous efficiency function for photopic vision V(l)
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral

/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
360 0.0000039170 401 0.0004337147 442 0.0256102400
361 0.0000043936 402 0.0004730240 443 0.0269585700
362 0.0000049296 403 0.0005178760 444 0.0283512500
363 0.0000055321 404 0.0005722187 445 0.0298000000
364 0.0000062082 405 0.0006400000 446 0.0313108300
365 0.0000069650 406 0.0007245600 447 0.0328836800
366 0.0000078132 407 0.0008255000 448 0.0345211200
367 0.0000087673 408 0.0009411600 449 0.0362257100
368 0.0000098398 409 0.0010698800 450 0.0380000000
369 0.0000110432 410 0.0012100000 451 0.0398466700
370 0.0000123900 411 0.0013620910 452 0.0417680000
371 0.0000138864 412 0.0015307520 453 0.0437660000
372 0.0000155573 413 0.0017203680 454 0.0458426700
373 0.0000174430 414 0.0019353230 455 0.0480000000
374 0.0000195838 415 0.0021800000 456 0.0502436800
375 0.0000220200 416 0.0024548000 457 0.0525730400
376 0.0000248397 417 0.0027640000 458 0.0549805600
377 0.0000280413 418 0.0031178000 459 0.0574587200
378 0.0000315310 419 0.0035264000 460 0.0600000000
379 0.0000352152 420 0.0040000000 461 0.0626019700
380 0.0000390000 421 0.0045462400 462 0.0652775200
381 0.0000428264 422 0.0051593200 463 0.0680420800
382 0.0000469146 423 0.0058292800 464 0.0709110900
383 0.0000515896 424 0.0065461600 465 0.0739000000
384 0.0000571764 425 0.0073000000 466 0.0770160000
385 0.0000640000 426 0.0080865070 467 0.0802664000
386 0.0000723442 427 0.0089087200 468 0.0836668000
387 0.0000822122 428 0.0097676800 469 0.0872328000
388 0.0000935082 429 0.0106644300 470 0.0909800000
389 0.0001061361 430 0.0116000000 471 0.0949175500
390 0.0001200000 431 0.0125731700 472 0.0990458400
391 0.0001349840 432 0.0135827200 473 0.1033674000
392 0.0001514920 433 0.0146296800 474 0.1078846000
393 0.0001702080 434 0.0157150900 475 0.1126000000
394 0.0001918160 435 0.0168400000 476 0.1175320000
395 0.0002170000 436 0.0180073600 477 0.1226744000
396 0.0002469067 437 0.0192144800 478 0.1279928000
397 0.0002812400 438 0.0204539200 479 0.1334528000
398 0.0003185200 439 0.0217182400 480 0.1390200000
399 0.0003572667 440 0.0230000000 481 0.1446764000
400 0.0003960000 441 0.0242946100 482 0.1504693000

148
Table 8.1 Continued

Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral
/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
483 0.1564619000 524 0.7778368000 565 0.9786000000
484 0.1627177000 525 0.7932000000 566 0.9740837000
485 0.1693000000 526 0.8081104000 567 0.9691712000
486 0.1762431000 527 0.8224962000 568 0.9638568000
487 0.1835581000 528 0.8363068000 569 0.9581349000
488 0.1912735000 529 0.8494916000 570 0.9520000000
489 0.1994180000 530 0.8620000000 571 0.9454504000
490 0.2080200000 531 0.8738108000 572 0.9384992000
491 0.2171199000 532 0.8849624000 573 0.9311628000
492 0.2267345000 533 0.8954936000 574 0.9234576000
493 0.2368571000 534 0.9054432000 575 0.9154000000
494 0.2474812000 535 0.9148501000 576 0.9070064000
495 0.2586000000 536 0.9237348000 577 0.8982772000
496 0.2701849000 537 0.9320924000 578 0.8892048000
497 0.2822939000 538 0.9399226000 579 0.8797816000
498 0.2950505000 539 0.9472252000 580 0.8700000000
499 0.3085780000 540 0.9540000000 581 0.8598613000
500 0.3230000000 541 0.9602561000 582 0.8493920000
501 0.3384021000 542 0.9660074000 583 0.8386220000
502 0.3546858000 543 0.9712606000 584 0.8275813000
503 0.3716986000 544 0.9760225000 585 0.8163000000
504 0.3892875000 545 0.9803000000 586 0.8047947000
505 0.4073000000 546 0.9840924000 587 0.7930820000
506 0.4256299000 547 0.9874182000 588 0.7811920000
507 0.4443096000 548 0.9903128000 589 0.7691547000
508 0.4633944000 549 0.9928116000 590 0.7570000000
509 0.4829395000 550 0.9949501000 591 0.7447541000
510 0.5030000000 551 0.9967108000 592 0.7324224000
511 0.5235693000 552 0.9980983000 593 0.7200036000
512 0.5445120000 553 0.9991120000 594 0.7074965000
513 0.5656900000 554 0.9997482000 595 0.6949000000
514 0.5869653000 555 1.0000000000 596 0.6822192000
515 0.6082000000 556 0.9998567000 597 0.6694716000
516 0.6293456000 557 0.9993046000 598 0.6566744000
517 0.6503068000 558 0.9983255000 599 0.6438448000
518 0.6708752000 559 0.9968987000 600 0.6310000000
519 0.6908424000 560 0.9950000000 601 0.6181555000
520 0.7100000000 561 0.9926005000 602 0.6053144000
521 0.7281852000 562 0.9897426000 603 0.5924756000
522 0.7454636000 563 0.9864444000 604 0.5796379000
523 0.7619694000 564 0.9827241000 605 0.5668000000

149
 Table 8.1 Continued
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral

/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
606 0.5539611000 647 0.1250248000 688 0.0095333110
607 0.5411372000 648 0.1187792000 689 0.0088461570
608 0.5283528000 649 0.1127691000 690 0.0082100000
609 0.5156323000 650 0.1070000000 691 0.0076237810
610 0.5030000000 651 0.1014762000 692 0.0070854240
611 0.4904688000 652 0.0961886400 693 0.0065914760
612 0.4780304000 653 0.0911229600 694 0.0061384850
613 0.4656776000 654 0.0862648500 695 0.0057230000
614 0.4534032000 655 0.0816000000 696 0.0053430590
615 0.4412000000 656 0.0771206400 697 0.0049957960
616 0.4290800000 657 0.0728255200 698 0.0046764040
617 0.4170360000 658 0.0687100800 699 0.0043800750
618 0.4050320000 659 0.0647697600 700 0.0041020000
619 0.3930320000 660 0.0610000000 701 0.0038384530
620 0.3810000000 661 0.0573962100 702 0.0035890990
621 0.3689184000 662 0.0539550400 703 0.0033542190
622 0.3568272000 663 0.0506737600 704 0.0031340930
623 0.3447768000 664 0.0475496500 705 0.0029290000
624 0.3328176000 665 0.0445800000 706 0.0027381390
625 0.3210000000 666 0.0417587200 707 0.0025598760
626 0.3093381000 667 0.0390849600 708 0.0023932440
627 0.2978504000 668 0.0365638400 709 0.0022372750
628 0.2865936000 669 0.0342004800 710 0.0020910000
629 0.2756245000 670 0.0320000000 711 0.0019535870
630 0.2650000000 671 0.0299626100 712 0.0018245800
631 0.2547632000 672 0.0280766400 713 0.0017035800
632 0.2448896000 673 0.0263293600 714 0.0015901870
633 0.2353344000 674 0.0247080500 715 0.0014840000
634 0.2260528000 675 0.0232000000 716 0.0013844960
635 0.2170000000 676 0.0218007700 717 0.0012912680
636 0.2081616000 677 0.0205011200 718 0.0012040920
637 0.1995488000 678 0.0192810800 719 0.0011227440
638 0.1911552000 679 0.0181206900 720 0.0010470000
639 0.1829744000 680 0.0170000000 721 0.0009765896
640 0.1750000000 681 0.0159037900 722 0.0009111088
641 0.1672235000 682 0.0148371800 723 0.0008501332
642 0.1596464000 683 0.0138106800 724 0.0007932384
643 0.1522776000 684 0.0128347800 725 0.0007400000
644 0.1451259000 685 0.0119200000 726 0.0006900827
645 0.1382000000 686 0.0110683100 727 0.0006433100
646 0.1315003000 687 0.0102733900 728 0.0005994960

150
Table 8.1 Continued

Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral
/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
729 0.0005584547 763 0.0000487184 797 0.0000045697
730 0.0005200000 764 0.0000454475 798 0.0000042602
731 0.0004839136 765 0.0000424000 799 0.0000039717
732 0.0004500528 766 0.0000395610 800 0.0000037029
733 0.0004183452 767 0.0000369151 801 0.0000034522
734 0.0003887184 768 0.0000344487 802 0.0000032183
735 0.0003611000 769 0.0000321482 803 0.0000030003
736 0.0003353835 770 0.0000300000 804 0.0000027971
737 0.0003114404 771 0.0000279913 805 0.0000026078
738 0.0002891656 772 0.0000261136 806 0.0000024312
739 0.0002684539 773 0.0000243602 807 0.0000022665
740 0.0002492000 774 0.0000227246 808 0.0000021130
741 0.0002313019 775 0.0000212000 809 0.0000019699
742 0.0002146856 776 0.0000197786 810 0.0000018366
743 0.0001992884 777 0.0000184529 811 0.0000017122
744 0.0001850475 778 0.0000172169 812 0.0000015962
745 0.0001719000 779 0.0000160646 813 0.0000014881
746 0.0001597781 780 0.0000149900 814 0.0000013873
747 0.0001486044 781 0.0000139873 815 0.0000012934
748 0.0001383016 782 0.0000130516 816 0.0000012058
749 0.0001287925 783 0.0000121782 817 0.0000011241
750 0.0001200000 784 0.0000113625 818 0.0000010480
751 0.0001118595 785 0.0000106000 819 0.0000009771
752 0.0001043224 786 0.0000098859 820 0.0000009109
753 0.0000973356 787 0.0000092173 821 0.0000008493
754 0.0000908459 788 0.0000085924 822 0.0000007917
755 0.0000848000 789 0.0000080091 823 0.0000007381
756 0.0000791467 790 0.0000074657 824 0.0000006881
757 0.0000738580 791 0.0000069596 825 0.0000006415
758 0.0000689160 792 0.0000064880 826 0.0000005981
759 0.0000643027 793 0.0000060487 827 0.0000005576
760 0.0000600000 794 0.0000056394 828 0.0000005198
761 0.0000559819 795 0.0000052578 829 0.0000004846
762 0.0000522256 796 0.0000049018 830 0.0000004518

151
 Table 8.2 Values of the spectral luminous efficiency function for scotopic vision V′(l)
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral

/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
380 0.0005890000 421 0.1052000000 462 0.5880000000
381 0.0006650000 422 0.1141000000 463 0.5990000000
382 0.0007520000 423 0.1235000000 464 0.6100000000
383 0.0008540000 424 0.1334000000 465 0.6200000000
384 0.0009720000 425 0.1436000000 466 0.6310000000
385 0.0011080000 426 0.1541000000 467 0.6420000000
386 0.0012680000 427 0.1651000000 468 0.6530000000
387 0.0014530000 428 0.1764000000 469 0.6640000000
388 0.0016680000 429 0.1879000000 470 0.6760000000
389 0.0019180000 430 0.1998000000 471 0.6870000000
390 0.0022090000 431 0.2119000000 472 0.6990000000
391 0.0025470000 432 0.2243000000 473 0.7100000000
392 0.0029390000 433 0.2369000000 474 0.7220000000
393 0.0033940000 434 0.2496000000 475 0.7340000000
394 0.0039210000 435 0.2625000000 476 0.7450000000
395 0.0045300000 436 0.2755000000 477 0.7570000000
396 0.0052400000 437 0.2886000000 478 0.7690000000
397 0.0060500000 438 0.3017000000 479 0.7810000000
398 0.0069800000 439 0.3149000000 480 0.7930000000
399 0.0080600000 440 0.3281000000 481 0.8050000000
400 0.0092900000 441 0.3412000000 482 0.8170000000
401 0.0107000000 442 0.3543000000 483 0.8280000000
402 0.0123100000 443 0.3673000000 484 0.8400000000
403 0.0141300000 444 0.3803000000 485 0.8510000000
404 0.0161900000 445 0.3931000000 486 0.8620000000
405 0.0185200000 446 0.4060000000 487 0.8730000000
406 0.0211300000 447 0.4180000000 488 0.8840000000
407 0.0240500000 448 0.4310000000 489 0.8940000000
408 0.0273000000 449 0.4430000000 490 0.9040000000
409 0.0308900000 450 0.4550000000 491 0.9140000000
410 0.0348400000 451 0.4670000000 492 0.9230000000
411 0.0391600000 452 0.4790000000 493 0.9320000000
412 0.0439000000 453 0.4900000000 494 0.9410000000
413 0.0490000000 454 0.5020000000 495 0.9490000000
414 0.0545000000 455 0.5130000000 496 0.9570000000
415 0.0604000000 456 0.5240000000 497 0.9640000000
416 0.0668000000 457 0.5350000000 498 0.9700000000
417 0.0736000000 458 0.5460000000 499 0.9760000000
418 0.0808000000 459 0.5570000000 500 0.9820000000
419 0.0885000000 460 0.5670000000 501 0.9860000000
420 0.0966000000 461 0.5780000000 502 0.9900000000

152
Table 8.2 Continued

Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral
/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
503 0.9940000000 544 0.5810000000 585 0.0899000000
504 0.9970000000 545 0.5640000000 586 0.0845000000
505 0.9980000000 546 0.5480000000 587 0.0793000000
506 1.0000000000 547 0.5310000000 588 0.0745000000
507 1.0000000000 548 0.5140000000 589 0.0699000000
508 1.0000000000 549 0.4970000000 590 0.0655000000
509 0.9980000000 550 0.4810000000 591 0.0613000000
510 0.9970000000 551 0.4650000000 592 0.0574000000
511 0.9940000000 552 0.4480000000 593 0.0537000000
512 0.9900000000 553 0.4330000000 594 0.0502000000
513 0.9860000000 554 0.4170000000 595 0.0469000000
514 0.9810000000 555 0.4020000000 596 0.0438000000
515 0.9750000000 556 0.3864000000 597 0.0409000000
516 0.9680000000 557 0.3715000000 598 0.0381600000
517 0.9610000000 558 0.3569000000 599 0.0355800000
518 0.9530000000 559 0.3427000000 600 0.0331500000
519 0.9440000000 560 0.3288000000 601 0.0308700000
520 0.9350000000 561 0.3151000000 602 0.0287400000
521 0.9250000000 562 0.3018000000 603 0.0267400000
522 0.9150000000 563 0.2888000000 604 0.0248700000
523 0.9040000000 564 0.2762000000 605 0.0231200000
524 0.8920000000 565 0.2639000000 606 0.0214700000
525 0.8800000000 566 0.2519000000 607 0.0199400000
526 0.8670000000 567 0.2403000000 608 0.0185100000
527 0.8540000000 568 0.2291000000 609 0.0171800000
528 0.8400000000 569 0.2182000000 610 0.0159300000
529 0.8260000000 570 0.2076000000 611 0.0147700000
530 0.8110000000 571 0.1974000000 612 0.0136900000
531 0.7960000000 572 0.1876000000 613 0.0126900000
532 0.7810000000 573 0.1782000000 614 0.0117500000
533 0.7650000000 574 0.1690000000 615 0.0108800000
534 0.7490000000 575 0.1602000000 616 0.0100700000
535 0.7330000000 576 0.1517000000 617 0.0093200000
536 0.7170000000 577 0.1436000000 618 0.0086200000
537 0.7000000000 578 0.1358000000 619 0.0079700000
538 0.6830000000 579 0.1284000000 620 0.0073700000
539 0.6670000000 580 0.1212000000 621 0.0068200000
540 0.6500000000 581 0.1143000000 622 0.0063000000
541 0.6330000000 582 0.1078000000 623 0.0058200000
542 0.6160000000 583 0.1015000000 624 0.0053800000
543 0.5990000000 584 0.0956000000 625 0.0049700000

153
 Table 8.2 Continued
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral

/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
626 0.0045900000 667 0.0001848000 708 0.0000104300
627 0.0042400000 668 0.0001716000 709 0.0000097600
628 0.0039130000 669 0.0001593000 710 0.0000091400
629 0.0036130000 670 0.0001480000 711 0.0000085600
630 0.0033350000 671 0.0001375000 712 0.0000080200
631 0.0030790000 672 0.0001277000 713 0.0000075100
632 0.0028420000 673 0.0001187000 714 0.0000070400
633 0.0026230000 674 0.0001104000 715 0.0000066000
634 0.0024210000 675 0.0001026000 716 0.0000061800
635 0.0022350000 676 0.0000954000 717 0.0000058000
636 0.0020620000 677 0.0000888000 718 0.0000054400
637 0.0019030000 678 0.0000826000 719 0.0000051000
638 0.0017570000 679 0.0000769000 720 0.0000047800
639 0.0016210000 680 0.0000715000 721 0.0000044900
640 0.0014970000 681 0.0000666000 722 0.0000042100
641 0.0013820000 682 0.0000620000 723 0.0000039510
642 0.0012760000 683 0.0000578000 724 0.0000037090
643 0.0011780000 684 0.0000538000 725 0.0000034820
644 0.0010880000 685 0.0000501000 726 0.0000032700
645 0.0010050000 686 0.0000467000 727 0.0000030700
646 0.0009280000 687 0.0000436000 728 0.0000028840
647 0.0008570000 688 0.0000406000 729 0.0000027100
648 0.0007920000 689 0.0000378900 730 0.0000025460
649 0.0007320000 690 0.0000353300 731 0.0000023930
650 0.0006770000 691 0.0000329500 732 0.0000022500
651 0.0006260000 692 0.0000307500 733 0.0000021150
652 0.0005790000 693 0.0000287000 734 0.0000019890
653 0.0005360000 694 0.0000267900 735 0.0000018700
654 0.0004960000 695 0.0000250100 736 0.0000017590
655 0.0004590000 696 0.0000233600 737 0.0000016550
656 0.0004250000 697 0.0000218200 738 0.0000015570
657 0.0003935000 698 0.0000203800 739 0.0000014660
658 0.0003645000 699 0.0000190500 740 0.0000013790
659 0.0003377000 700 0.0000178000 741 0.0000012990
660 0.0003129000 701 0.0000166400 742 0.0000012230
661 0.0002901000 702 0.0000155600 743 0.0000011510
662 0.0002689000 703 0.0000145400 744 0.0000010840
663 0.0002493000 704 0.0000136000 745 0.0000010220
644 0.0002313000 705 0.0000127300 746 0.0000009620
665 0.0002146000 706 0.0000119100 747 0.0000009070
666 0.0001991000 707 0.0000111400 748 0.0000008550

154
Table 8.2 Continued

Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light

Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral
/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
749 0.0000008060 760 0.0000004250 771 0.0000002282
750 0.0000007600 761 0.0000004010 772 0.0000002159
751 0.0000007160 762 0.0000003790 773 0.0000002042
752 0.0000006750 763 0.0000003580 774 0.0000001932
753 0.0000006370 764 0.0000003382 775 0.0000001829
754 0.0000006010 765 0.0000003196 776 0.0000001731
755 0.0000005670 766 0.0000003021 777 0.0000001638
756 0.0000005350 767 0.0000002855 778 0.0000001551
757 0.0000005050 768 0.0000002699 779 0.0000001468
758 0.0000004770 769 0.0000002552 780 0.0000001390
759 0.0000004500 770 0.0000002413

155