DC MOTOR:

DC Motor is an electrical machine which, when provided

with direct current electrical energy, converts it into mechanical
energy. It is based on electromagnetic induction, where a conductor
carrying current (normally a coil of wire) placed in a magnetic field
experiences force to rotate. This rotation is used to perform
mechanical work.
DC motors are integral components in electric vehicles (EVs),
serving as the primary source of propulsion. They convert electrical
energy from the battery into mechanical energy to drive the vehicle
forward. DC motors are often mounted directly on the vehicle's
wheels, providing direct drive and simplifying the drivetrain. They
offer advantages such as high torque at low speeds, making them
well-suited for city driving and stop-and-go traffic.
There are many applications for DC motors, they can be
used in robotics; electric vehicles, and some industrial machinery
as well as household devices. DC motor can be used at such places
where speed control is required. That is why DC motors are often
used in trolleys, electric train production systems, elevators, etc.

DC MOTOR DIAGRAM:

CONSTRUCTION:
DC motor has such basic components, as a stator (stationary
part of the element producing magnetic field) and a rotor part that
rotates carrying winding or coil. When a DC voltage is connected to
the coil, current flows through it and generates an electromagnetic
field. When the magnetic field of this rotor interacts with that
produced by the stator, a torque is induced which causes this piece
to start spinning.

DC MOTOR PARTS:
DC machine has the following main parts:
 Field System or Stator
 Armature
 Commutator
 Brushes

FIELD COIL OR STATOR:

As the name suggests, the field coil or stator is the non moving or
the stationary part of the DC motor around which coil is wounded
and produce magnetic field
The stator consists of various parts:
 Yoke
 Pole Core
 Pole Body
 Shoe for the pole
 Field Winding
 End Plates

Yoke: The structure of a DC machine works to create the

magnetic circuit between the poles.
Pole Core: Pole Core is usually of laminated iron or other
magnetic material. Its function is to serve as a passage for the
magnetic flux generated by the field winding.
Pole Body: Pole body works with the pole core. When an electric
current passes through the field winding, a magnetic flux is
established not only in the pole core but also around it. The poles
and their bearings are known as the pole body.
Shoe: Shoe is a synonym for one of the brushes inside an electric
motor. DC motors have brushes to make contact with the rotating
armature, and typically they are sodded.
Field Winding: Field winding is on the pole core next to the stator.
Field winding uses insulated copper wire. An insulated copper coil is
wound round the pole core. If this coil on the pole core is excited
with direct current, we get magnetic flux.
End Plates: End plates encapsulate the entire motor. They provide
a casing for all of the internal parts–the armature, commutator and
brushes as well sometimes also including field windings.

ARMATURE:
Armature is the rotating part of the motor which generates
mechanical energy. Armature core has windings. The armature
core is made of 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick high magnetic strength (silicon
steel lamination) and a thin layer of varnish is applied on each
sheet.
COMMUTATOR:
Commutators are used in DC appliances such as DC Motors and
DC Generators. It periodically reverses the current between the
armature and the circuit and produces steady torque.
BRUSHES:
Brushes or often called Carbon Brushes are made up of
graphite. In DC Motors, brushes supplies current to the winding of
the armature.

DC MOTOR WORKING PRINCIPLE:

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
a mechanical force acts on it, which can be determined by
Fleming’s left hand rule. Due to this force the conductor becomes
mobile in the direction of the force.

DC MOTOR WORKING:
Imagine that a current-free conductor (which is not connected
to the supply) is placed in the main magnetic field the and without
the magnetic field flowing through the conductor. Assume, there is
an air gap from N pole to S pole.
Current is flowing in the conductor but the magnetic effect of N
pole and S pole has been removed. In this situation the conductor
will maintain its own magnetic field. The magnetic field lines of
force of the conductor will be clockwise according to the cork screw
rule.
Current is flowing in the conductor and main magnetic field is
also present. The magnetic field produced due to the current in the
conductor acts along with the main field above the conductor but
opposes the main field below the conductor. The result is that flux
accumulates in the region above the conductor and flux density
reduces in the region below.
From this it is clear that when the force is acting on the
conductor, it works to push the conductor downwards. If the
direction of current in the conductor is changed, the flux will
accumulate downwards and will try to move the conductor
upwards.

DC MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS:
If length of conductor = L meter, field intensity = B weber per
square meter (Bwb/m2) and current flowing in the conductor = i
ampere, then the force experienced by the conductor will be F = iBL
Newton.
F= B.L.I.Sinθ
where,
 B = flux density (in Tesla).
 L = length of conductor (in meters).
 I = current flowing in the conductor.
 Sinθ = angle between the conductor and magnetic lines of
force.

DC MOTOR TORQUE FORMULA:

Torque, also known as moment or moment of force, is the force that
tends to rotate or move an object around a central axis. A force is a
push or pull, similarly, torque creates twisting to an object.
Mathematically, torque is given as T = F × r. For DC Motor, the
torque is given as
T = (0.159PΦNZ/A)Ia
where,
 T is Torque of Armature
 Ia is the armature current
 P is Number of Poles
 Ф is Flux per pole
 N is Speed of motor in (RPM)
  Z is Number of conductors
 A is Number of parallel paths

DC MOTOR EMF EQUATION:

EMF or the electromotive force is responsible for flow of current
in the electrical appliances. EMF is not an force but the electric
potential. In case of DC Motor, a back EMF is produced which
counters the armature current. The direction of this back EMF is
given by Lenz Law. The formula of back emf is given as
Eb = PΦNZ/60A
where,
 P is Number of Poles
 Ф is Flux per pole
 N is Speed of motor in (RPM)
 Z is Number of conductors
 A is Number of parallel paths

DC MOTOR SPEED:
The formula for DC Motor speed is given as:
N = KEb/Φ
where,
 N is speed in RPM
 K is constant proportionality which is equal to 60A/ZP

TYPES OF DC MOTORS:
DC Motors can be classified into various categories based on
the application and winding connections. Based on the winding of
armature DC Motor is of two types
 Self Excited DC Motors
 Separately Excited DC Motors
SELF EXCITED DC MOTOR:
DC motors that excite themselves have a part and coil of field
connected in series or partly so, same for parallel connection. They
can also have combination of series and Parallel connections. They
also get power from only one place. Three types of self-excited DC
motors exist:
 Series DC motor
 Shunt DC motor
 Compound DC Motor
SERIES DC MOTOR:
It is a motor in which the field is in series with the armature
and its starting torque is very high. This means that the same flow
of current goes through both the coil and armature. Series motors
always go in one direction and their speed is affected by the
physical load.
SHUNT DC MOTOR:
Shunt motor is a DC motor in which the field is jointed in
parallel to the armature and its starting torque is less than that of
series motor. Inside the shunt motor the field winding is connected
parallel to the armature winding. The field winding is made of more
turns of thin wire. Shunt motors are used in applications where
continuous speed is required.

COMPOUND DC MOTOR:
Compound Motor is a Motor in which both series and parallel
fields are added. Compound DC motors use both parallel and
connected field windings. In the armature winding, everything is in
series. However, field coils can be shunt or series types.

SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR:

In DC motors with a separate excite, field coil to make
permanent magnets. But, the armature and field coils are not
connected electrically to each other. They work separately and do
not bother the other. But, the result of the engine is added up with
both.

More Types of DC Motor

Some more types of DC Motor on the various parameters are
discussed below:
1. Based on Commutation:
 Brushed Motors: Use brushes and a commutator for
current reversal.
 Brushless Motors: Switch currents in the windings by
electronic commutation.
2. Based on Application:
 DC Servo Motors: Exact control of position and speed.
Applied in robotics, CNC machine tools and automation.
 Stepper Motors: Take small steps, accurate position
control. Widely employed in printers and CNC machines.
 Hysteresis Motors: The materials ‘motion makes use of
their magnetic hysteresis Used in devices such as record
players, rather simple.
 Brushed DC Gear Motors: Have a gearbox for high
torque at low speeds. Applied in robotics, electric vehicles
and automation.
  DC Traction Motors: Intended for use in traction
devices, including electric vehicles and trains.
3. Based on Speed-Torque Characteristics:
 High-Speed DC Motors: Designed for uses involving
high rotational speeds. Examples include tools and
appliances.
 Low-Speed DC Motors: Offer high torque at low
speeds. Commonly used in industrial machinery.
4. Based on Size and Shape:
 Micro DC Motors: Applications such as consumer
electronics call for very small motors.
 Large DC Motors: As used in industrial purposes such as
steel mills, paper industries and ship propulsion.
5. Based on Control System:
 Closed-Loop DC Motors : Feedback mechanisms can be
employed for more precise control. Applications where
precision control is important.
 Open-Loop DC Motors: Control without feedback,
simpler design. In applications where control is not so
critical.

INDUCTION MOTOR:
An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor) is
a commonly used AC electric motor. In an induction motor, the
electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained via
electromagnetic induction from the rotating magnetic field of the
stator winding. The rotor of an induction motor can be a squirrel
cage rotor or wound type rotor.
Induction motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ because
they operate at a speed less than their synchronous speed.

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED:
Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic
field in a rotary machine, and it depends upon the frequency and
number poles of the machine. The induction motor always runs at
speed less than its synchronous speed

where, f = frequency of the supply

 P = number of poles

The rotating magnetic field produced in the stator will create flux in
the rotor, hence causing the rotor to rotate. Due to the lag between
the flux current in the rotor and the flux current in the stator, the
rotor will never reach its rotating magnetic field speed (i.e. the
synchronous speed).
Induction motors are classified into two types based on the input
supply: single phase and three phase. Single phase induction motors
are not self-starting, whereas three phase induction motors are self-
starting.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION MOTOR:

We need to give double excitation to make a DC motor to
rotate. In the DC motor, we give one supply to the stator and
another to the rotor through brush arrangement. But in induction
motor, we give only one supply, so it is interesting to know how an
induction motor works.
When we give the supply to the stator winding, a magnetic flux
gets produced in the stator due to the flow of current in the coil. The
rotor winding is so arranged that each coil becomes short-circuited.
The flux from the stator cuts the short-circuited coil in the
rotor. As the rotor coils are short-circuited, according to Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, the current will start flowing
through the coil of the rotor. When the current through the rotor
coils flows, another flux gets generated in the rotor.
Now there are two fluxes, one is stator flux, and another is
rotor flux. The rotor flux will be lagging with respect to the stator
flux. Because of that, the rotor will feel a torque which will make the
rotor to rotate in the direction of the rotating magnetic field. This is
the working principle of both single and three-phase induction
motors.

TYPES OF INDUCTION MOTOR: The types of induction motors can

be classified depending on whether they are a single phase or three
phase induction motor.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: The types of single phase

induction motors include:

1. Split Phase Induction Motor

2. Capacitor Start Induction Motor
3. Capacitor Start and Capacitor Run Induction Motor
4. Shaded Pole Induction Motor
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:
The types of three phase induction motors include:

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

2. Slip Ring Induction Motor
In a three phase system, there are three single phase lines with a
120° phase difference. So the rotating magnetic field has the same
phase difference which will make the rotor to move.

PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

PMSM motor Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor is
a type of Permanent Magnet Motor widely used in Electric
vehicles. PMSM motors are up to 15 percent more efficient than
Induction motors and are the most power-dense type of traction
motors.
The latest PMSM motors are being used in today’s Electric vehicles
(EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV).

MAIN COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

 Traction Battery Pack
 DC-DC Converter
 PMSM Motor
 Power Inverter
 Charge Port
 On-board Charger
 Power Electronics Controller
 Thermal System (Cooling)
 Transmission unit

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

The power for the electric motor PMSM is converted from the DC
Battery to AC via DC to DC converter and Inverter. As the
accelerator is pressed, a signal is sent to the controller.
The Controller adjusts the speed of the vehicle by changing the
frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor.
ELECTRIC VEHICLE WORKING:
With the controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of
electrical energy to the motor (according to the depth of pressure on
the pedal) Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission so the
wheels turn and then the car moves.
If the brakes are pressed, or the electric car is decelerating, the
motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent
back to the battery.

TYPES OF PMSM:
The two most common types of Brushless PM motors are classified
as:

PMSM or Brushless AC
Synchronous, with a uniformly rotating stator field as an
induction motor. This type is also referred to as Brushless AC-
BLAC Motors.

PMDC or Brushless DC
Switched or trapezoidal, with stator fields that are switched in
discrete steps. This type is also referred to as Brushless DC-
BLDC Motors.
CONSTRUCTION OF PMSM MOTOR FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

1. The Stator of PMSM Motor:

 As in common AC induction motors, electrical power is supplied

through the stator windings.
 PMSM stator windings are typically distributed over multiple
slots in order to approximate a sinusoidal distribution so that
the resulting back-EMF waveforms generated are Sinusoidal
shaped.

2. The Rotor of PMSM Motor:

There are two basic constructions of the PMSM motor – a structure

that is based of the method of arrangement of the magnets on the
rotor.

If the magnets are mounted on the surface of the rotor of the motor,
the PMSM motor is called a Surface-mounted Permanent
Magnet machine. If the magnets are mounted within the rotor, then
the PMSM motor is called internally fitted with permanent magnets
known as Interior Permanent Magnet (IPM) synchronous
machine.
PMSM MOTORS USED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES:
Interior Permanent Magnet (IPM) synchronous motors possess
special features for adjustable-speed operation. Motors with interior
permanent magnet (IPM) rotors can provide exceptionally high
efficiency.

 Permanent magnets are embedded within the rotor

laminations internally fitted with a permanent magnet
motor.
 PMSMs are the only variety that contains rare earth Permanent
Magnets. PMSM use neodymium-iron-boron (“NdFeB”)
permanent magnets, which contain the rare earth elements
neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium and terbium.
 On average, a PMSM for an EV contains approximately 1.2 kg
of NdFeB magnets per 100 kW of peak motor power yielded.
 Since the magnets are embedded in a rotor, the centrifugal
force during motor rotation does not make the magnets fly out
and the mechanical stability is high.
 These motors can use both the torque due to magnet
magnetization and the reluctance torque due to rotor
magnetization.
. PMSM MOTOR DRIVE OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:
 All PMSM motors require a matched PM-Drive.
 PMSM drives substitute the more traditional trapezoidal
waveform’s flat tops with a sinusoidal waveform that matches
PMSM back EMF more
closely, so torque output is smoother.

WORKING OF PMSM MOTOR FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

A “PMSM”, which stands for “permanent magnet synchronous
motor”, relies on magnets to turn the rotor, which spins at the same
speed as the PMSM’s internal rotating magnetic field.

PMSM motor drives the three phases are always excited during the
electrical period, making it necessary to use at least one rotor
position sensor.

By continuously detecting the rotor angular position and rotational

speed, the excitation can be properly switched among the PMSM
motor phases in exact synchronism with the rotor motion using a
Power electronic control circuit known as PMSM Drive.

This concept, commonly known as self-synchronization, uses direct

feedback of the rotor angular position to ensure that the PMSM
machine never loses synchronization. Generally, Hall sensors are
used to get information about the angular position of the rotor,
detecting the magnetic field direction generated by the rotor.

VECTOR CONTROLLED PMSM-DRIVE OPERATION IN AN ELECTRIC

VEHICLE:
The PMSM Drive is a classical vector control drive for Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motors. This drive features a closed-loop speed
control based on the vector control method. Closed-loop
configuration provided with speed feedback. Feedback allows the
drive to track the exact rotor position to provide a true infinite speed
range, including full torque at zero speed.

The operation of PMSM motors requires position sensors in the rotor

shaft when operated without damper winding. The ones most
commonly used for motors are encoders and resolvers.

The speed control loop outputs the reference electromagnetic

torque of the machine taken from an external source can be an
analog signal and encoder feedback, or a serial command from a
feedback device.

These PM drives use motor data and current measurements to

calculate rotor position; the digital signal processor (DSP)
calculations are quite accurate. During every sampling interval, the
three-phase AC system dependent on time and speed is transformed
into a rotating two-coordinate system in which every current is
expressed and controlled as the sum of two vectors.

The reference direct and quadrature (dq) components of the stator

current corresponding to the commanded torque are derived based
on vector control strategy. The reference dq components of the
stator current are then used to obtain the required gate signals for
the inverter through a hysteresis-band current controller.

The main advantage of this drive compared to scalar-controlled

drives is its fast dynamic response. The inherent coupling effect
between the torque and flux in the machine is managed through
decoupling (stator flux orientation) control, which allows the torque
and flux to be controlled independently. However, due to its
computation complexity, the implementation of this drive requires
fast computing processors or DSPs.

Advantages of PMSM Motors over AC Induction Motors:

 PMSM has a high overload capability. The power-to-weight ratio of
a PMSM is higher than induction machines.

Higher efficiencies and smaller sizes (permanent magnet motors

can be as much as one-third of most AC motor sizes, which makes
installation and maintenance much easier) compared to Induction
Motors.

PMSMs’ ability to maintain full torque at low speeds.

BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR:
A brushless DC (BLDC) motor is a type of synchronous direct
current (DC) motor that does not use brushes for commutation.
Instead, they are electronically commutated with the help of
semiconductor switches. Commutation is the process of switching
the current flow in the motor's windings to maintain continuous
rotation. As electronic switches are used for transferring current to
the coil windings, these motors are also called electronically
commutated motors (ECM) or EC motors.

Construction and Working of BLDC Motors:

A BLDC motor design is similar to a brushed DC motor design and

comprises a rotor and a stator. The rotor consists of a permanent
magnet and the stator consists of electromagnets in the form of
windings. In addition, it consists of a few BLDC-specific components
such as sensors and an electronic controller. Hence the main
components of a BLDC motor include:

 Rotor
 Stator
 Position Sensor
 Electronic Controller
Cross Section of a BLDC Motor
Stator: The stator comprises stacked steel laminations with axially cut
slots for winding. It produces a shifting magnetic force and results in the
spinning of the rotor. The stator can be configured inside and surrounded
by a rotor or it can be outside and enclosing the rotor. It usually consists
of three different windings connected using either a star or delta pattern.
A star configuration produces a higher torque level at lower speeds
whereas a delta pattern produces a low level of torque at low motor rpm.

Rotor: The rotor comprises of permanent magnet made up of rare

earth materials such as neodymium, ferrite, and boron. It offers a
magnetic field that interacts with the stator to enable rotational
motion. Depending on the application, the number of poles varies
from two to eight with north (N) and south (S) poles positioned
alternatively. Similar to the stator, the poles of the rotor can be
configured either on the outer periphery of the rotor, embedded into
the core of the rotor, or can be inserted into the core of the rotor.

Increasing the number of poles increases the motor’s torque.

However, it decreases the motor’s speed and smoothness of
operation. Also, the use of high-ferrite materials for permanent
magnets enhances the motor’s torque.
Position Sensor: For a BLDC motor to electronically, its controller must be
aware of the position of the rotor anytime. Hall effect position sensors are
used to sense the rotor position and switch the power to the right
electromagnet at the right time. Three such sensors are embedded into
the stator to estimate the rotor’s position. The output of the sensor is
either high or low depending on the type of pole (N or S) that has passed
near it.

Electronic Controller: The electronic controller in a BLDC motor coordinates

the various components to achieve precise and efficient motor control. It
determines the optimal timing for commutation based on feedback from
position sensors. The controller also regulates the speed and torque of the
BLDC motor by adjusting the amplitude and timing of the current supplied
to the windings.

Working Principle: The working principle of a BLDC motor is based on the

interaction between the magnetic fields of the stator and the rotor, which
is controlled by the electronic controller. The electronic controller is
integrated into the motor's stator assembly. It provides a three-phase
frequency-controlled supply to the stator winding and controls the flow of
current based on the position of the rotor. The rotor position is detected
by Hall effect sensors mounted on the stator. The controller adjusts the
flow of current to the motor windings to ensure smooth and efficient
operation of the motor.

Features of BLDC Motor:

 Brushless Design: BLDC motors replace brushes with electronic

circuits to transform the DC to AC. This results in negligible spark
and noise, no brush consumption, and reduced maintenance. It
eliminates electrical and mechanical losses.
  High Efficiency: BLDC motors have an efficiency of up to 95% which
leads to less energy consumption and heat generation compared to
brushed motors.
 High torque-to-weight ratio: BLDC motors often have a high torque-
to-weight ratio, making them suitable for applications where weight
and space are critical factors.
 Variable Speed Control: BLDC motors offer precise control over speed
and direction through electronic control systems. This makes them
ideal for applications where precise speed regulation is needed.
 Regenerative Braking: BLDC motors can act as generators during
braking. They convert kinetic energy into electrical energy which is
fed back to the power supply or stored for later use, improving
overall energy efficiency.

Disadvantages of BLDC Motors:

 Higher Initial Cost: The high initial cost of a BLDC motor is attributed to factors
such as the incorporation of electronic controllers and sensors within the
assembly.
 Fragile Electronics and Sensors: BLDC motors depend on electronic
controllers and sensors for their operation which impose restrictions on the
motors' suitability for rugged environments like dusty conditions.
 Demand Gear Reduction: The high rotational speed of BLDC motors makes
them impractical for low-speed applications, such as drives. In such
scenarios, a gear reduction system is necessary, which leads to increased
costs.
Applications of BLDC Motors

 Electric Vehicles (EVs): BLDC motors find widespread usage in electric

vehicles (EVs) for propulsion. Their efficiency and high torque-to-weight ratio
make them well-suited for EV applications, extending driving ranges and
enhancing overall performance.
 Industrial Automation: BLDC motors play a crucial role in various industrial
automation systems, including robotics, conveyor belts, CNC machines, and
 packaging equipment. Their precise speed control and robust torque
capabilities enhance productivity and accuracy in manufacturing processes.

SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS:

What is switched reluctance

motor?
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an electric motor that runs

by reluctance torque. Unlike common brushed DC motor types, power is delivered

to windings in the stator (case) rather than the rotor. Switched Reluctance Motor

(SRM) is also known as Variable Reluctance Motor.

The property of a magnetic circuit of opposing the passage of magnetic flux lines,

equal to the ratio of the magneto motive force to the magnetic flux.

Due to higher efficiency, magnet-less operation, and simple mechanical structure,

SRM becomes the most preferable electric motor for latest electric vehicle

applications. A recently advanced version of SR technology has been used to

power Tesla Model 3 electric car and claimed a significant increase in range

(efficiency) compared to the induction motor used in Model S.

Working Principle of switched reluctance motor

This motor works on the principle of variable reluctance. This means, the rotor

always tries to align along the lowest reluctance path.

As we know that magnetic flux have a tendency to flow through lowest

reluctance path, therefore rotor always tends to align along the minimum
reluctance path. This is the basic working principle of Switched Reluctance
Motor or Variable Reluctance Motor. Construction of SRM
Variable Reluctance Motor or Switched Reluctance Motor has two different constructions:

1) Singly Salient Construction

2)Doubly Salient Construction

Stator and rotor magnetic circuits are laminated to reduce the core losses in both type of

SRM.

The SRM is constituted by a stator with concentrated windings disposed around polar cores

and by a rotor composed by salient poles free of windings or magnets. Normally, each stator

phase is composed by a couple of windings diametrically opposed.

In Figure 1 a SRM configuration of 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles is shown, That is the

configuration of reference .

Figure 1: SRM configuration of 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles

Image Source : www.intechopen.com

When a stator phase is magnetized, a closed magnetic field is generated between the stator,

the air gap and the rotor.

This magnetic field tends to minimize the reluctance by reducing the air gap which creates a

rotor movement. When a stator pole is aligned with a rotor pole, it is said that they are in the

position of minimum reluctance, and when they are completely unaligned, it is said they are

in the position of maximum reluctance.

This characteristic of the motor makes it possible to create a rotational movement of the rotor

by magnetizing and demagnetizing each phase in the right position of the rotor.

SRM Motor Characteristics

Characteristics of SRM motor are listed below,
  Synchronous operation.
 Low-cost motor due to simple and magnet-free construction.
 More suitable for high-speed/power density applications.

Advantage of SRM
Advantages of switched reluctance motor are listed below,

 It does not require an external ventilation system as the stator and rotor slots projected. The
airflow maintained between the slots.
 The rotor does not have winding since therefore no need to keep the carbon brush and slip
ring assembly.
 Since the absence of a permanent magnet, such motors are available at a cheaper price.
 A simple three or two-phase pulse generator is enough to drive the motor.
 The direction of the motor can be reversed by changing the phase sequence.
 Self-starting and does not require external arrangements.
 Starting torque can be very high without excessive inrush currents.
 High Fault Tolerance.
 Phase losses do not affect motor operations.
 High torque/inertia ratio.
 High starting torque can be achieved.

Disadvantage of Switched reluctance motor

Disadvantages of switched reluctance motor are listed below,

 Creates Torque ripple at high-speed operation.

 The external rotor position sensor is required.
 Noise level is high.
 At a higher speed, the motor generates harmonics, to reduce this, we need to install larger
size capacitors.
 Since the absence of a Permanent Magnet, the motor has to designed to carry a high input
current. It increases the converter KVA requirement.

Application of SRM
The simple motor structure and inexpensive power electronic requirement have made the

SRM an attractive alternative to both AC and DC machines in adjustable-speed drives.

Few of such applications are listed below,

 General-purpose industrial drives

 Application-specific drives: compressors, fans, pumps, centrifuges;
 Domestic drives: food processors, washing machines, vacuum cleaners;
 Electric vehicle application;
 Aircraft applications;
 Servo-drive.
SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MACHINES:

What is Synchronous Reluctance Motor : Working

& Its Applications
November 13, 2020 By Wat Electrical

Synchronous reluctance motor is an electromechanical energy conversion

device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Unlike DC
motor which works on Lorentz force law, synchronous reluctance motor
works on the variable reluctance principle. The main characteristic of this
motor is, it runs at synchronous speed. Due to magnetic locking, it follows
the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field which is formed

at stator poles. Due to its constant speed, the motor has few applications
as compared to switched reluctance motor. One more disadvantage with
this device, speed control is not possible, as the rotor is always locked to
the stator magnetic field.

What is a Synchronous Reluctance Motor?

Synchronous reluctance motor is an electromechanical energy conversion

device, which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. The motor
always runs at synchronous speed due to magnetic locking between the
rotor magnetic field and the stator magnetic field. In a DC motor, the
torque is produced due to interactions between stator and rotor magnetic
fields, which is also knowns as Lorentz force law.

Synchronous Reluctance Motor

But in synchronous reluctance motor, it follows the reluctance principle.

Constant reluctance torque is produced in the rotor which causes the
motor to run. It may be noted that in switched reluctance motor, a
variable reluctance torque is produced, which is produced because of
switching circuits. Switching circuits produce a rotating magnetic field at
the stator. But in synchronous switching circuits are not required as we
are not going to vary the speed of the motor.

Synchronous Reluctance Motor Principle

The fundamental concept behind the operation of this motor is the

reluctance principle. When a ferromagnetic material is placed under the
influence of the magnetic field, the magnetic lines flow through the
material avoiding the path outside or surrounding the material. Since in
the surrounding, the air is present and air has high reluctance as
compared or reluctance of the materials. Reluctance is equivalent to
resistance in the magnetic field. As we know that, the current always try
to flow in the least resistance path, similarly, the flow of magnetic lines
which is also called flux lines, try to flow in the least reluctance path.

When the stator is supplied with 3 phase supply, the stator windings
which are placed in star or delta configuration, produce a rotating
magnetic field. The reason for the production of rotating magnetic field is
as per theorem of rotating magnetic field according to which, whenever a
three-phase winding is supplied excited with a three-phase supply then it
produces a rotating magnetic field which rotates at a speed of
synchronous speed given by (120*f/P), where f is the frequency and P is
the number of poles. For a six-pole machine, the magnetic field rotates at
1000 RPM.

The rotating magnetic field, when crosses the air gap and interacts with rotor
windings, the rotor winding tends to attract the stator magnetic field.It must be
noted that the rotor is mostly of squirrel cage type like in an induction motor. But
whereas in a synchronous motor, the rotor is of a salient pole of the cylindrical
structure. When the rotor winding is cut by the stator magnetic field, they too
produce a rotating magnetic field and based on reluctance principle, try to align
with the stator magnetic field. Since the stator magnetic field is rotating at
synchronous speed, the rotor also starts rotating at synchronous speed due to
magnetic locking between the stator and rotor magnetic field.

Phasor Diagram

One important characteristic of synchronous reluctance motor is its

constant speed. At the start, if the rotor fails to align with the stator
magnetic field, in that case, damper winding comes into the picture. They
are also used in synchronous motors. The damper windings which are
placed in pole shoes, produce damping torque due to relative speed
difference between the rotor magnetic field, and the stator magnetic field.
 Phasor Diagram

This happens when the rotor fails to align with the stator. The damping
torque produced, according to Lenz Law tries to oppose the reason for its
production, which is the speed difference between rotor and stator
magnetic field. Hence the damping torque pushes the rotor winding such
that it gets magnetically locked with stator magnetic field. And afterward,
the rotor runs on synchronous speed for the remaining time.
The synchronous reluctance motor phasor diagram is shown above.
The q axis and d axis are defined based on the two-axis theory of
synchronous machine. Similarly, we can define Vd and Vq, which are the
voltage across the d and q axis. Gamma is the angle between d-axis and
stator current Is. This is also defined as a rotor angle. The synchronous
torque produced is a function of the rotor angle.

Construction

Constructional features mainly include stator and rotor windings. The

stator winding is of three phases in nature. Which means that they are
connected in star or delta. The reason for this, when they are excited with
a three-phase supply, they must produce a rotating magnetic field. The
stator winding is made of silicon steel stampings.

Synchronous Motor Construction

The rotor windings are made up of ferromagnetic material. The reason for
this, since the rotor, has to align with stator magnetic material as per
reluctance principle, therefore the reluctance of the rotor windings must
be least. As shown in the figure, the armature windings are placed on the
stator and the field winding is placed on the rotor. It is just the opposite of
the DC generator. The reason is mainly due to insulation problems, and
since the armature windings carry the armature currents, it is better to
keep them static. The stator winding is excited with a three-phase supply
as shown in the figure. In low rating machines, permanent magnets are
used for rotor windings. They don’t need any separate excitation.

Synchronous Reluctance Motor Working

When the stator windings are excited with a three-phase supply, they
produce a rotating magnetic field in the stator windings. The magnetic
field rotates at a synchronous speed based on the number of poles and
frequency. The fundamental concept behind the reluctance motor is the
reluctance principle. The rotor windings are of squirrel cage in shape just
like in induction motor. When the rotor windings are excited with DC
supply, they produce a magnetic field at rotor windings. Now we have two
magnetic fields, one is the stator magnetic field and the other one is the
rotor magnetic field. The stator magnetic field is rotating at a speed of
synchronous speed.

Now the rotor windings are constructed in such a manner that, when the stator
magnetic field tries to align with the rotor magnetic field, it forms a minimum
reluctance path. For that minimum reluctance path, the rotor tries to align itself
with the stator magnetic field, and in that process, it gets magnetically locked
with a stator magnetic field. If the stator magnetic field is rotating at
synchronous speed, the rotor also rotates are synchronous speed.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Due to its robust nature, the advantages and disadvantages of

synchronous reluctance motor include the following.

The advantages are

 Due to its magnetic locking concept, the machine is able to produce

constant speed under all circumstances. Any change in loads like
underload or overloads will be overcome by synchronizing torque. The
speed will be maintained in all respects.
 Due to the reluctance principle, it does not need any starting method like
in a synchronous motor that needs starting methods and not self-starting.
 The self-starting aspect of the machine makes it more robust.
 Due to a less complicated structure, it requires less maintenance.
 There are no ripple torques like in a switched reluctance motor.

The disadvantages are

  The biggest disadvantage of the motor is that, due to its constant speed
 application, no speed control is possible. Since the speed cannot be
varied.
 Due to the need for both stator and rotor magnetic fields, the machine is
also known as a doubly excited machine. We need two excitations, one for
stator and the other for the rotor.
 Due to the presence of three-phase windings, copper losses are more, as
compared to DC motor.

Applications

The applications of synchronous reluctance motor include the following.

Mostly the motors are used in industry due to their property of speed
control. But since the synchronous reluctance motor has a constant speed
and speed control is not possible, it has very few applications. Like in
conveyor belts, rice mills, paper mills, where constant speed is required.

SPEED CONTROL ABOVE AND BELOW THE RATED SPEED OF ELECTRIC

VEHICVLE:

Torque is the rotational equivalence of linear force. Speed measures the distance
covered in unit time. The relation between torque and speed is inversely proportional
to each other. The torque of a rotating object can be mathematically written as the
ratio of power and angular velocity.

To obtain the speed of a motor above and below its rated speed using the
field control method, you can adjust the field current to change the motor's
speed.

 For speeds above the rated speed, you can decrease the field
current to reduce the motor's magnetic field strength, which in
turn will increase the motor's speed and hence torque is
reduced.
 For speeds below the rated speed, you can increase the field
current to strengthen the motor's magnetic field, thereby
decreasing the motor's speed and hence torque is reduced.
This method allows for precise control of the motor's speed within a certain
range by manipulating the field current. Keep in mind that specific motor
types and control systems may have variations in their field control methods,
so it's important to consult the motor's documentation .

CHOICE OF AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE:

AC motors
AC motor works upon the principle of magnetism. The AC
motor has a set of wires and 2 magnets placed on both
sides of the wires. When electricity passes through these
wires it creates a magnetic field. Because of this effect, the
coils in the shaft begin rotating and therefore the vehicle
starts moving. Ac motors are designed for running
smoothly even on uneven terrains. These are generally
preferred for high-performing vehicles, owing to their
regenerative function acting as generators to supply power
to the battery of an EV.
DC motors
DC motors have high torque suitable for heavy-loaded
vehicles. This was earlier used for tractors for a stable
pulling of loads. We can control the speed of the vehicle
even when there is an abrupt surge in speed. Since it has
numerous commutators and brushes the upkeep of DC
series motors is high. The motors used in e- trains are the
DC brushed motors.