Redesigning castings based on parting line considerations:

Redesigning castings based on parting line considerations is a fundamental principle in

Design for Manufacture (DFM), particularly in sand casting, die casting, and investment
casting. The parting line is the dividing line between the two halves of a mold. Its position
has a significant impact on casting quality, mold complexity, tooling costs, and
manufacturability.

Why Parting Line Considerations Matter

 Defines mold halves and affects how the pattern and core boxes are designed.
 Impacts casting defects such as flash, mismatch, and dimensional inaccuracy.
 Influences mold extraction — ensuring undercuts are avoided for easier removal.
 Affects surface finish and tolerance in the parting area.

Principles for Redesign Based on Parting Line Considerations

1. Choose a Natural Parting Line

 Select a parting line that follows the largest horizontal cross-section.

 Aim to have one flat plane when possible to simplify mold halves.

2. Minimize Complexity

 Avoid parting lines that intersect with bosses, ribs, or intricate features.
 Eliminate undercuts relative to the parting direction to avoid complex cores or slides.

3. Ensure Mold Accessibility

 Design with draft angles to ease removal from the mold.

 Align features so they are accessible from one or both mold halves.

4. Avoid Mismatch and Flash

 Redesign to have the parting line in non-critical aesthetic or tolerance zones.

 Reinforce or thicken regions near the parting line if necessary to reduce leakage.
5. Reduce Core Requirements

 Adjust part geometry to minimize the use of internal cores by aligning hollow
features with mold pull direction.

Examples of Redesigns

Before Redesign After Redesign Improvement

Complex parting line across Flat parting line across a single

Simplified mold design
curved surfaces plane

Under cuts on both mold Redesign with proper draft and

No need for sliding cores
halves no undercuts

Features bisected by the Shifted features to be fully in Reduced flash and better
parting line one half surface finish

High precision surfaces along Repositioned critical features Enhanced dimensional

the parting line away accuracy

Design Guidelines

Design Guideline Purpose

Keep the parting line on a single plane Simplifies mold tooling

Avoid splitting holes or ribs Improves strength and accuracy

Add drafts (~1°–3°) from the parting line Aids in mold removal

Round transitions near the parting line Prevents stress concentration

Place parting line in less visible areas Improves aesthetics

Benefits of Redesign

 Reduced tooling cost and manufacturing time

 Improved casting accuracy and surface finish
 Simplified mold making and pattern design
 Lower risk of casting defects (flash, mismatch)
Minimizing core requirements:

Minimizing core requirements is a critical aspect of optimizing castings for cost, quality,
and ease of manufacture. Cores are used in casting to create internal cavities or undercuts,
but they introduce added complexity, cost, and potential defects. Redesigning a casting to
reduce or eliminate cores improves manufacturability and reliability.

Why Minimize Core Usage?

Issue with Cores Impact

Added tooling (core boxes) Increases production cost

Handling and placing cores Increases labor and process time

Core shift/misalignment Causes dimensional inaccuracy

Gas generation from core binder Leads to porosity or gas defects

Core breakage or erosion Causes internal defects in casting

Design Strategies to Minimize Core Requirements

1. Align Internal Cavities with the Parting Direction

 Redesign the part so internal features (like holes or recesses) lie in the same
direction as mold opening.
 Example: Replace horizontal holes (which require a core) with vertical holes that
can be formed by mold projections.

2. Use Open Passages Instead of Blind Cavities

 Convert blind holes into through-holes where possible, which can be formed with
simple mold sections.
 Alternatively, redesign to eliminate internal voids if they are non-functional.

3. Split the Casting (Modular Design)

 Divide complex parts into multiple simple castings that can be joined later (e.g., by
welding or bolting).
  Each part can be cast without cores, and then assembled.

4. Incorporate Bosses or Ribs Strategically

 Replace large cored-out pockets with webs or ribs to reduce weight without needing
internal cavities.
 This improves strength while avoiding cores.

5. Redesign Hollow Sections Using Inserts or Post-Machining

 If unavoidable, consider creating hollow features by post-machining or using inserts

rather than cores.
 Use cast-in metal inserts or machine out material post-casting.

6. Avoid Reentrant Shapes

 Avoid internal angles and profiles that would trap the part in the mold and require
cores or slides to release.
 Use tapered transitions and open geometry.

Before and After Redesign Example

Original Design Redesigned Version Result

Thick casting with internal Two thin plates with a machined

Core eliminated
cooling channel (core needed) groove, joined after casting

Horizontal through-hole Formed by mold, no

Hole aligned with parting direction
perpendicular to parting line core

Replaced by solid section + post- Core removed,

Complex internal cavity
machined bore precision improved

Design Tips Summary

Tip Explanation

Align holes/cavities with mold pull direction Allows coreless formation

Tip Explanation

Replace cavities with webs or ribs Maintains strength and reduces weight

Use post-processing for difficult features Avoids internal core defects

Avoid enclosed pockets unless essential Prevents need for sand cores

Design for self-supporting mold geometry Reduces tooling complexity

Benefits of Core Minimization

 Lower cost of tooling and casting

 Faster mold preparation
 Improved dimensional accuracy
 Fewer casting defects (core shift, gas porosity)
 Higher yield and repeatability

Other design considerations in casting:

In casting design, beyond parting line placement and core minimization, there are several
critical design considerations that ensure high-quality, cost-effective, and manufacturable
components. These considerations help reduce defects, simplify manufacturing, and enhance
the mechanical integrity of the part.

Key Design Considerations in Casting

1. Draft Angles

 Provide tapered surfaces (usually 1–3°) to allow easy removal of the pattern from
the mold.
 Prevents mold damage and improves surface finish.
 Required on both internal and external vertical surfaces.

2. Uniform Wall Thickness

 Minimize wall thickness variations to avoid uneven cooling, which leads to:
o Shrinkage cavities
 o Hot spots
o Warping or cracking
 If thickness change is unavoidable, use smooth transitions (fillets or tapers).

3. Fillets and Radii

 Use generous fillets (no sharp internal corners) to:

o Reduce stress concentration
o Improve mold filling
o Prevent cracks and sand erosion

4. Ribs and Bosses

 Add ribs to reinforce thin walls or reduce weight.

 Use bosses for mounting points or locations for machining.
 Ensure proper draft on these features.

5. Machining Allowance

 Allow extra material for post-casting machining on functional surfaces.

 Typical values: 1–3 mm depending on casting size and process.

6. Shrinkage and Solidification Considerations

 Account for material shrinkage during cooling in dimensioning.

 Avoid large solid masses by coring out or redistributing material.
 Design for directional solidification: metal should solidify from the farthest point
back toward the riser.

7. Avoid Undercuts

 Undercuts complicate the mold design and may require slides or collapsible cores.
 Redesign features to be mold-friendly.

8. Proper Gating and Riser Placement

 Design features to accommodate gating systems without obstructing functional areas.

  Ensure easy metal flow and gas escape to reduce turbulence and porosity.

9. Surface Finish Requirements

 Avoid high finish requirements on raw cast surfaces, especially near parting lines or
rough zones.
 Specify finish only where functionally necessary to reduce cost.

10. Material and Process Selection

 Match design with suitable casting process (sand, die, investment, etc.) and material
properties:
o Aluminum: good for lightweight, complex shapes
o Steel: high strength, wear resistance
o Cast iron: vibration damping, good wear resistance

Design Checklist for Casting

Design Element Best Practice

Draft 1–3° taper on all vertical faces

Wall thickness Uniform, typically 4–10 mm for sand casting

Fillets Radius ≥ 2 × wall thickness

Machining allowance 1–3 mm

Undercuts Avoid or redesign

Bosses Add for strength or features, draft applied

Holes Align with mold pull direction

Ribs Use for stiffness, maintain uniform section

Gating system Consider during layout, avoid gating on functional surfaces

Surface finish Avoid tight finish specs on non-critical areas

Benefits of Good Casting Design

 Reduced scrap and rework

 Lower tooling and production costs
  Improved mechanical performance
 Better dimensional accuracy
 Higher production efficiency

Economic Production Quantity (EPQ):

Economic Production Quantity (EPQ) is a classical inventory control model used in

production and manufacturing systems. It helps determine the optimal production
quantity that minimizes total inventory costs, including setup (or ordering) costs, holding
(or carrying) costs, and sometimes shortage costs.

Definition of EPQ

The Economic Production Quantity (EPQ) is the optimal lot size that minimizes the total
cost of production, considering that the product is manufactured in batches and inventory
is replenished gradually (not instantaneously as in EOQ).

EPQ Formula:

Where:

 D = Annual demand (units/year)

 S = Setup cost per production run
 H = Holding cost per unit per year
 P = Production rate (units/year)
 d = Demand rate (units/year)
 Note: The term P/P-d adjusts for the rate at which inventory builds up, since
production and consumption occur simultaneously.
Assumptions of EPQ Model

1. Demand is constant and known.

2. Production rate is constant and known, and greater than demand rate.
3. Setup cost per production run is constant.
4. Holding cost per unit is constant.
5. Shortages are not allowed.
6. Lead time is zero or constant.

Advantages of EPQ

 Reduces total inventory cost

 Balances setup and holding costs
 Suitable for make-to-stock environments

Limitations

 Assumes deterministic and constant demand/production

 Doesn’t handle multiple products or resource constraints well
 Ignores capacity limitations and variability
DESIGN OF WELDMENTS:

Weldments refer to assemblies made by welding multiple components (typically metal parts)
into a single structure. Weldments are widely used in industries such as automotive,
aerospace, construction, shipbuilding, and heavy machinery due to their structural integrity
and flexibility.

Advantages of Weldments

1. Strong and Permanent Joints

Welded joints are typically stronger than riveted or bolted joints because the metal
parts are fused at the molecular level.
2. Weight Reduction
Weldments eliminate the need for additional fastening components (bolts, nuts,
brackets), which can reduce the overall weight of the structure.
3. Cost Efficiency
o Lower material cost compared to casting or machining a large component.
o Less machining is needed since individual parts can be prefabricated to near-
final dimensions.
4. Design Flexibility
Weldments allow complex shapes and large structures to be built from smaller,
simpler components. This is useful for custom or low-volume production.
5. Time Savings
Welding is generally faster than assembly using bolts or rivets, especially for large or
complex assemblies.
6. Accessibility and Field Repairs
Weldments can be fabricated or repaired on-site, which is useful for large structures
like bridges, ships, or pipelines.
7. High Structural Integrity
Weldments provide rigid and continuous connections, which are essential for load-
bearing applications.
8. Minimized Stress Concentration
Compared to bolted joints, welds distribute loads more evenly and reduce the chances
of localized stress points.
 9. Aesthetic and Streamlined Appearance
Welded joints can be ground smooth, leading to a clean, seamless finish that is often
desirable in architectural or exposed components.
10. Ease of Automation
Welding processes can be automated (e.g., robotic welding), enabling high
consistency, repeatability, and speed in mass production.

Designing for Economical and Efficient Welding:

Designing for Economical and Efficient Welding involves optimizing the product's design
so that welding can be performed quickly, safely, with minimal cost, and without
compromising structural integrity. Below are key guidelines and principles:

1. Minimize the Number of Welds

 Reduce the total number of joints.

 Use long, continuous welds instead of multiple short welds.
 Design assemblies using fewer parts, ideally combining parts into a single weldment
where appropriate.

2. Simplify Joint Design

 Use standard joint types (e.g., butt, fillet, lap) rather than complex or custom
configurations.
 Avoid difficult positions like overhead or vertical welding where possible.
 Design for accessibility so that welders or robots can reach the joint easily.

3. Use Weld-Friendly Geometry

 Ensure tight, consistent fit-up between parts.

 Avoid sharp internal corners, deep grooves, or highly complex shapes that are hard to
weld.
 Prefer flat or slightly curved surfaces for ease of clamping and welding.

4. Specify Appropriate Weld Sizes

 Avoid oversized welds — they waste time, material, and increase distortion.
  Use engineering calculations to determine the minimum required weld size for
strength and safety.
 Use intermittent welds when full-length welds are not necessary.

5. Control Weld Distortion

 Use balanced welding to reduce residual stresses (e.g., weld on both sides of a
neutral axis).
 Sequence the welds to minimize warping (e.g., skip welding, backstep welding).
 Clamp or fixture parts properly during welding.

6. Minimize Welding Position Complexity

 Design components to be welded in the flat (downhand) position as much as

possible — it's the fastest and easiest position.
 Position parts so that gravity assists the welding process.

7. Choose Suitable Materials

 Use weldable materials with known weld characteristics.

 Avoid materials that require special preheating or post-weld treatments unless
necessary.
 Use compatible filler materials to reduce weld defects.

8. Facilitate Automation

 Standardize parts and joints for compatibility with robotic or mechanized welding.
 Maintain tight tolerances and consistent part geometries.
 Eliminate or reduce the need for repositioning during automated welding.

9. Design for Safety and Inspection

 Provide clear access for visual or non-destructive testing (NDT).

 Avoid welds in locations that are hard to inspect or repair.
 Minimize welding in enclosed spaces or hazardous conditions.
10. Use Proper Weld Symbols and Documentation

 Include clear, standardized weld symbols (per ISO or AWS standards).

 Provide complete welding process specifications (WPS).
 Clearly indicate welding sequence, positions, and inspection requirements.

Redesigning Cast Members Using:

Redesigning Cast Members Using Weldments involves replacing traditionally cast

components with welded assemblies to improve manufacturability, reduce cost, or enhance
structural performance. This approach is common when:

 Castings are too expensive or slow to produce.

 High strength, lighter weight, or modularity is desired.
 There's a need for ease of modification, repair, or on-site fabrication.

Steps in Redesigning Castings as Weldments

1. Analyze the Function and Load Paths

 Understand the structural role of the cast component.

 Identify areas that carry high loads or require specific stiffness.

2. Break Down the Casting Geometry

 Decompose the casting into simple, flat, rolled, or machined plates and sections
(e.g., channels, angles, tubes).
 Eliminate complex curves and undercuts that are hard to fabricate.

3. Select Appropriate Materials

 Use weldable grades of steel or aluminum (e.g., A36, 1018, 6061).

 Ensure material properties match or exceed those of the original casting.

4. Design Welded Subcomponents

 Replace filleted or ribbed regions with welded plates or stiffeners.

 Replace bosses, lugs, or pads with machined blocks welded into place.
  Simplify geometries to suit cutting, forming, and welding processes.

5. Optimize Joint Design

 Choose suitable welding joints: butt, fillet, corner, T-joint, lap.

 Minimize distortion and stress concentrations by proper welding sequence and
design symmetry.

6. Incorporate Standard Profiles

 Use standard structural shapes like I-beams, channels, square/round tubing.

 This reduces fabrication time and cost.

7. Add Machining Allowances Where Needed

 Critical dimensions or surfaces can be finished by post-weld machining.

 Design to leave excess stock where accuracy is important.

8. Consider Fabrication Constraints

 Ensure accessibility for clamping, welding, and inspection.

 Minimize welding in awkward positions or enclosed areas.

Advantages of Replacing Castings with Weldments

Aspect Benefit

Lead Time Weldments are faster to fabricate than castings.

Cost No pattern tooling or foundry setup costs.

Flexibility Easy to modify or repair.

Weight Optimization Selective use of material allows for lighter designs.

Automation Suitable for robotic welding.

Material Variety Wide range of weldable materials available.

Challenges

 More welds = more inspection and possible distortion.

 Post-weld machining may still be required.
 May increase the number of parts and assembly complexity if not well designed.

Example

Original Cast Part:

 Complex bracket with fillets, bosses, and mounting holes.

Welded Redesign:

 Base made from a cut steel plate.

 Vertical section from square tubing.
 Mounting boss as a machined part welded on.
 Stiffeners added for strength.

Use of Welding Symbols:

Welding symbols are a standardized way of conveying complete welding instructions on

engineering drawings. They are critical for ensuring welds are produced consistently,
correctly, and according to design intent.

1. Purpose of Welding Symbols

 Communicate type of weld, location, size, length, and other specifications.

 Eliminate verbal instructions or misinterpretation.
 Facilitate inspection and quality control.

2. Standards Used

 ANSI/AWS A2.4 – Standard in the U.S.

 ISO 2553 – International standard.
3. Components of a Welding Symbol

Element Function

Reference Line Baseline to which all elements are attached.

Arrow Line Points to the location of the joint to be welded.

Basic Weld Symbol Symbol indicating the type of weld (fillet, groove, etc.).

Tail Optional; used to specify process, notes, or standards.

Weld Size/Length Dimensions added next to the symbol for control.

Finish Symbols Indicate machining, grinding, or other finish.

Contour Symbols Indicate the desired weld contour (flat, convex, etc.).

4. Common Basic Weld Symbols

Symbol Type of Weld

∟ Fillet Weld

─ ─

V V-Groove Weld

U U-Groove Weld

J J-Groove Weld

⊥ Plug/Slot Weld

● Spot Weld

▯ Seam Weld
 Symbol Type of Weld

R Bevel Weld

5. Placement Rules

Symbol Location Meaning

Below the reference line Weld is to be made on the arrow side of the joint.

Above the reference line Weld is to be made on the other side of the joint.

Both sides (above and below) Weld both sides of the joint.

6. Dimensioning a Weld

 Size of the weld (e.g., leg length of a fillet) is placed to the left of the weld symbol.
 Length of the weld is shown to the right of the symbol.
 Pitch (center-to-center spacing) for intermittent welds is also included to the right.

Example:

→ ∟ ← 6-40 (Means: 6 mm leg length, 40 mm long fillet weld on the arrow side)

7. Example Symbol Interpretation

Symbol:

Arrow → ——∟——
6 100

Interpretation:

 A 6 mm fillet weld,
 100 mm long,
 On the arrow side of the joint.
8. Tail Specifications

The tail may include:

 Welding process (e.g., GMAW, TIG, SMAW)

 Welding procedure specification (e.g., "WPS-101")
 Notes such as "Grind flush" or "All-around"

Design Recommendations for Weldments:

Designing effective weldments requires balancing structural performance, fabrication

efficiency, and cost. Below are detailed design recommendations categorized for clarity.

1. Structural and Functional Design

 Align Load Paths: Design weldments so that loads transfer smoothly through the
structure — avoid stress concentrations at welds.
 Use Symmetry: Symmetrical weldments help control distortion and simplify analysis.
 Design for Minimum Stresses at Welds:
o Place welds in low-stress areas.
o Avoid placing welds near holes, sharp corners, or notches.

2. Material and Section Selection

 Use Readily Weldable Materials: Prefer low-carbon steels, stainless steels, and
aluminum alloys with good weldability.
 Standard Structural Sections: Use I-beams, channels, square tubes, and plates
instead of custom profiles to reduce cost and complexity.
 Avoid Thick-to-Thin Transitions: They cause uneven heat input and distortion;
taper or transition gradually.

3. Weld Joint Design

 Simplify Joint Types: Use fillet, butt, or lap joints. Avoid complex groove or corner
joints unless necessary.
 Minimize Number and Length of Welds:
o Use intermittent or stitch welding where full-length welds aren't needed.
 o Avoid over-welding — calculate required weld size accurately.
 Provide Proper Fit-Up:
o Design joints with appropriate gaps and alignment tolerance.
o Use tab-and-slot features for self-locating parts.

4. Fabrication-Friendly Features

 Design for Flat/Horizontal Welding: It’s the easiest and most cost-effective
position.
 Allow Access for Welding Tools: Ensure clearance for torches, electrodes, and
inspection tools.
 Add Weld Access Holes or Reliefs where necessary for internal welds or back
gouging.
 Plan Welding Sequences: Design the structure to be assembled in logical
subassemblies that allow progressive welding.

5. Distortion and Residual Stress Control

 Balance Welds: Symmetrical welds across the neutral axis reduce warping.
 Sequence the Welds: Alternate sides or skip around the structure to reduce heat
buildup.
 Use Clamping and Fixturing: Design for easy use of fixtures during welding.

6. Post-Weld Considerations

 Allow for Machining: Include extra material (machining allowance) where high
dimensional accuracy is required after welding.
 Avoid Inaccessible Inspection Areas: Design weldments so all critical joints can be
inspected visually or with NDT methods.
 Design for Maintenance: If applicable, allow for disassembly or replacement of
worn parts.

7. Welding Symbols and Documentation

 Clearly Define Welds: Use standard welding symbols (AWS/ISO) on drawings.

  Include Process Notes: Mention welding process, sequence, and any heat treatment
requirements.
 Specify Tolerances: Give achievable and necessary tolerances only.

Summary Table: Key Do’s and Don’ts

Do Don't

Use standard weld joints Use excessive or overly complex welds

Design for flat position welding Require overhead welds unnecessarily

Use symmetrical designs to reduce distortion Introduce asymmetry near welds

Choose weldable, standard materials Mix incompatible or hard-to-weld materials

Dimension welds properly Oversize welds "for safety"