-

A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K atedra Elek-
i k i A n i ki A
dra Elektron tedra Elektro GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate k t r o n i k i A G H K a
l e k tr o n i ki A
atedra Ele
Measurement result
Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A G H r o n i k i A G H
aQte=dr|Q|[Q] a Elekt Q – quantity value atedra Elekt
troni ki A G H K
ed r a E l e k t
|Q| r o n i k i A
- numerical value
G H K
a t e d r a E l e k troniki AGH
GH Kat [Q] – unit roniki AGH
K lektroniki
Elektroniki A d r a E l e k t K a t e d r a E
l e k t r o n i ki A GH Kate System of
International a Units
E l e k t–roSI i AGH
nik(1960) d r a Elektro-
d ra E K a t e d r H K a t e
e d r a E l e k t niki units
robase AGH
K a t e d r a E lektroniki AG K a t edra Elek-
Ka t A G H A G H
dra Elelength ktroniki
quantity symbol
ra Elektronikmi
quantity unit quantity symbol
Katedra
G H K a t e G h, r, K
l, H x ated metre A G H
A Elektr o n i k i A kt r o n i k i
G H K atedramass m
G H K atedra Elekg
kilogram
GH Kate-
ni ki A l e k t r o n i k i A s lektroniki A
dr a E Katedra AE
time t second

n i k i A G H Kateelectric current
oI, i i AGH
n i k amper
k t r o niki AGH
t r o a E l e k t r e d r a E l e
Katedr kelvin H KaKt
GH amount G a Elektroniki
temperature T
n lektroniki mole
A
Elektroniki A H K
of substancea E
a t ed r mol
H K a t e d r
iki AG roniki AG
ektcandela edra Elektro-
dra Elektron E l
luminous intensity I cd
H K a t e
v
d r a G H K a t
AG ki A
Katedra El
tronikiunits
ekderived
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H Katedra Ele
k-
n i k i A n i k i A
dra Elektro [Q] = [kA B C G ] HegK : [Na] t=e[kg dr⋅am ⋅E s l]ektr
o
GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate
α χ γ −2

k t r o n i k i A l e k t r o n i k i A
atedra Ele Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
K atedra Elekt Katedra Ele
k
H
t ro n i ki A G H
t e d r a E l e k t r o n i ki A G H
a t e d r a E l e ktroniki AG
GH Ka K
Elektroniki A d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH K a t e d r a Elektroniki
e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t ed r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A t r o n i k i
i A G H K
Derivedatedra E units
lekt
i A G H K atedra Elek k i A GH Kate-
n i k l ek t r o n i k l e k t r o n i
Katedra E H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGH r a E l e k t r o n i k i A G
t e d r a E l e k t r
GH Kated i AGH Ka a Elektroniki
Elektroniki A a t e d r a E l e k t r o n i k
H K a t e d r
iki AGH K Elektroniki A
G
tedra Elektro
-
dra Elektron G H K a t e d r a
ki A G H K a
Katedra El
ektroniki A
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elek-
A A
H K a t e d r a Elektroniki H K a t e d r a Elektroniki G H Katedra
AG i k i A G n i k i A
A G H K a tedra Elektro
n
A G H K a tedra Elektro A G H Kate-
niki k t r o n i k i k t r o n i k i
i k i A G H Katedra Ele n i k i A G H Katedra Ele t ro n iki AGH
t ro n a E l e k t r o ed r a E l e k
l e k t r o n i k i A GH Katedr E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat t e d r a Elektroniki
E t e d r a K a
a E l ek t r o n i ki AGH Ka t e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t edra Elektro-
dr H K a G H K
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a te d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t edra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i ki A k tr o n i k i
atedra Elekt Katedra Ele H Katedr
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
source: http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/SIdiagram.html
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i ki A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

4
 -
A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K atedra Elek-
i k i A n i ki A
dra Elektron tedra Elektro GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate k t r o n i k i A G H K a
l e k tr o n i k i A
atedra Ele
Measurement standards (etalons)
Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A
kt the definition of aK G H t r o
a Elek with stated AGH n i k i A G H
H K tedra Eleof
arealisation G H atedrquantity,
given
troni ki A G quantity
K a t e d r a
value E n i k i A
ektroassociated uncertainty,
land H K a t e d
used r a asEalektroniki
Elektroniki A reference
GH (VIM) r a E l e k t r o niki AG K a t e d r a E lektroniki
e d
E l e k t r o n i ki AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t r oniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra K a t H K
niki AGHstandard Katedra Elektroniki AG
international
ektrometrology edra Elek-
scientific

K a t e d r a E l H H K a t
ki A G ki A G
dra Elektroni dra Elektroni
BIPM

A G H K a t e
k i A G H K a t e
n i k i A G H Katedra
o n i r o
ra Eletoktother standards of the
atedra Elektr standard ki Aestablished
primary national primary measurement standard – measurement standard

ni ki A G H K
l ek t r o n i G H K atedreferring
without
l e k t r o n i k i A GH Kate-
Katedra E H Katedra E
NMI (e.g. GUM) same kind
G H G niki AGH
precission

i A i ki A r o
accuracy

t r o n i k a
dr standardE l e k t r o n e d r a E l e k t
GH Katesecondary AGH Kat
a Elektroniki
secondary measurement standard - measurement
Elektroniki A a E l e k t r
standard o n i k i
established through calibration with respect
a t e d r
a t ed r H K
iki AGH K ektroniki AG edra Elektro-
NMI to a primary standard

dra Elektron H K a t e
G standard working measurement d r a E l
A G H K a t
ektrlegal oniki Aworking troniki - measurement standardatedra Elek-
kstandard
a Elecalibration
Katedra El metrology l e k t ro n i k i A G H K a
establishedt e drthrough
l e k t r o
with respect to
n i k i A GHa K
dr a E H Katedra E a
GH Katedr
NMI primary standard, used routinely for calibration
AGH Kate e k t r o n i k i A G l e k t r o n i k i A
atedra El Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
K atedra Elekt Katedra Ele
k
H
t ro n i ki A G H
t e d r a E l e k t r o n i k i A G H
a t e d r a E l e ktroniki AG
GH Ka K
Elektroniki A d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH K a t e d r a Elektroniki
e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t ed r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A t r o n i k i
A G H K Elekt
atedr–a definition, A G H K tedra Elek
auncertainty A GH Kate-
n i k i Units l e k t r o n i k i
realisation, l e k t r o n i k i
H Katedra
E
G H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGtime: ated r a E l e k t r o n i k i A
Ka t e d r a E l e k t r
1A GH [s] isK i ki ofA GHcorresponding Elektroniki
Elektroniki transition t r o n
second the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods radiation to the
a t ed r a E l e k atom H Katedra
iki AGH K G
between two hyperfine levels of the ground state 133of Cs

dra Elektron K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a t e d r a E lektro-

d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH a te d r a E l e ktroniki AG a t e dra Elek-
Kate A G K
commercial cesium reference standard 5071A
H A G H K
a Elektroniki a Elektroniki
(Symmetricom, formerly HP)

r r Katedra
uncertainty 5x10-13 - 1x10-12

H K a t e d G H K a t e d G H
AG i k i A n i k i A
A G H K a tedra Elektro
n
A G H K a tedra Elektro A G H Kate-
niki k t r o n i k i k t r o n i k i
i k i A G H Katedra Ele n i k i A G H Katedra Ele t ro n iki AGH
t ro n a E l e k t r o caesium clocks at PTB
ed r a E l e k
GH Katedr AGH Kat Elektroniki
Physikalish-Technische

E l e k t r o n i k i A a E l e k t r o n i k i Bundesanstalt
a t e d r a
t ed r K
i AGH Ka roniki AGH
Braunschweig , Germany

t r o n i k E l e k t dra Elektro-
uncertainty 1.2x10-14

dr a E l ek K a t e d r a 1x10-9 s/day
G H K a t e
H
ektroniki AG Elektroniki A tedra Elek-
1 s/2.7x106 years

K a t e d r a E l H K a te d r a H K a
k i A G cesium fountain 1x10-15
k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i ki A k t r o n i k i
atedra Elekt Katedra Ele H Katedr
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

5
 -
A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H Katedra Ele
k-
n i k i A n i ki A
AGH Kate
dra Elektro
A G H K a tedra Elektro k i A GH Katedr
a
kt r o n i k i l e k t r o n i
atedra EleUnits – definition, realisation, Katedra E uncertainty Kate-
niki AGH K lekt r o n i k i A G H k t r o n i k i A G H
K tedra Ecurrent:
aelectric Katedra Ele H
t ro n i ki A G H 1 amper [A] isrthe
t e d a E l e
electrick t r o n i
current, k i A G H
that if maintained in two stright
a t e d r a
and E
paralell e ktroniki AG
GHconductors Ka with infinite length... separated i byA1meter GHin vacuum K would produce between lektroniki
Elektroniki A these H r o nikeach Katedra E
meter
a t ed r a E l e k t H
G K
conductors a force of 2×10 -7 N per
k i
of length
A G
(technically impossible....)

dra Elektron
A
iki Rayleigh current balance
K a t e d r a Elektr o n i
H K a t e d r a Elektro-
H K ⋅ IG
ektroniki AG lektronikFi =A ra Elek-
2
;F = m ⋅ g
a t ed r a E l H K a t e d r a E 1 W
F GH Kated
2

K ki A G F
A=
dra Elektroni ra Elektroniki ↓
1 2

A G H K a t e
k iFA G H K a t e d
n i k i A G H Katedra
o n i r o
atedrIa Elektr atedra ElIekt= mK⋅ g ki AGH Kate-
1 m

i A G H K W
i A G H K
ni k Elektron i k lektroni
W

a t e d r a F
a t e d r a E
K K niki AGH
2

troniki AGH r a E e k t r o n
uncertainty 6ppm → 6x10-6
l i ki AGH t e d r a E l e k t r o
d on Ohm’s law
Elektroniki A
H Katebased
Grealisation
a E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Ka a t e d r a Elektroniki
a t ed r H K
iki AGHI K Elektroniki A
G
tedra Elektro
-
1ppm → 1x10 -6

dra Elektron W
G H K a t e d r a
A G H K a
ektroEniki A R I = UH RKatedra Elektroniki dra Elek-
Katedra El A G A G H K a t e
a Elektroniki a Elektroniki
W W W W W

AG H K a t e d r
A G H K a t e d r
i A G H K atedra
k i i k
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t edra Elektron A G H Kate-
niki A t r o n i k i A k t r o n i k i
i A G H K atedra Elek i ki A G H Katedra Ele r o n i ki AGH
t ro n i k E l e k t r o n a E l e k t
k t r o n i k i A G H Katedra l e k t r o n i k i A GH Katedr d r a Elektroniki
E le e d r a E K a t e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A t r o n i k i
A G H K Elekt
atedr–a definition, A G H tedra Elek
Kauncertainty A GH Kate-
n i k i Units l e k t r o n i k i
realisation, l e k t r o n i k i
H Katpotential edra E G H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGelectric r a E l
difference e k
ated of potentials betweenntwo
Kdifference
t r o n i ki A
(valtage): Ka t e d r a E l e k t r
of H i
Elektroniki constant
1A voltG [V]H is the
K a t ed r a E l e k t r o i k AG
i points a conductor carrying a
H 1K W. a t e d ra Elektronik
current of 1 A when
H the power dissipated between these
iki XXA
points
G equals (1948)

dra Elektrrealisation oniki AG based on (inverse) K a t e d

Josephsonr a lektron(90’
Eeffect century)
H K a t e d r a E lektro-
d r a E l e k t r o niki AG I
H
a te d r a E l e ktroniki AG a t e dra Elek-
Kate
j
A G H K G H K
n ⋅ f ktroniki A
H K a t e d r a Elektroniki H K
U =ant⋅efdra =Ele
h m
G H Katedra
AG
microwave
i k i A G j m
n i k i A
tedra Elektro
n dra Elektro
radiation 2 ej K

niki A G H K a
t r o n i k i A G K H = 483597K a 9eGHz/V
.t
t r o n i k i A G H Kate-
tedra ElekU
j

ate→drUa≅ 20EµV... le k
n i k i A G H fm KaT=4.2K o n
m
i ki
f = 9.9546537
A G H KGHz
k t r o n iki AGH
t ro a
j
E l e k t r Kated r a E l e
l e k t r o n i k i A GH Katedr E l e k t r o n i k i AGH j I
t e d r a Elektroniki
E t ed r a K a
i AGH Ka roniki AGH
matrix of ~8192-69632 Josephson’s
dr a E l ek t r o
junctions n i k
H K a t e d r a E l e k t fm K j
G H K a t edra Elektro-
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki AU j
H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni
range –10 ÷ +10V, uncertainty ~10-10
G H K a t edra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A k tr o n i k i
atedra Elekt Katedra Ele H Katedr
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

6
 -
A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e d ra Elek-
A A
H K a t e d r a Elektronik i G H K a t e d r a Elektroniki G H K atedra
AG oni k i A Elektron i ki A
G H K a tedUnitsra Elek–trdefinition, G
realisation,
H K a tedra uncertainty G H Kate-
niki A lek t r o n i ki A k t r o n i k i A
i k i A G H K tedra Eresistance:
aelectric
n i k i A G H Katedra Ele t r o n iki AGH
t ro n E l e k t r o
between two points of a conductor when r a E l e k
tedra of 1V between these two GH Kated
1 ohm [Ω] is the resistance the current of 1A

n i k i A G Hcauses Kadifference r o n i k i A
points
Elektroniki
El e k t r o e d r a E l e
t on quantum Hall effect k t K a t e d r a
i AGH Ka roniki AGH
realisation based
dr a E l e k t r o n i k
K a t e d r a E l e k t
H K a t e d r a Elektro-
H G
ektroniki I ABG ElRektroniki A
U 2-D electron gas

tedra Elek-
H 16000 1600

l r a
RH=RK/2

K a t e d r a E G H K a t e d 14000

G H K a 1400

k i A U
roniki A
dra Elektroni Idran Elekt
H K 12000 1200
R = =
K a t e K a t e H Katedra
10000 1000
H H G

RH [Ω]
G G

RX [Ω]
A r o n i k i A T=1.3K; I=10µA

t r o n i k i A
atedra Elekt ra Elek
8000 800
h
eKated GH Kate-
R = =
n i k i A G H K o n i k i A G
K
H
2
6000

o n i
RX~0

k i A
600

l ek t r T~1K 4000
l e k t r 400

Katedra E U H Katedra E
= 25812 . 807 Ω
oniki AGH
2000 200

troniki AGH ek t r o n i ki A G
von Klitzing constant
E l e k t r
0 0

r a E l
AlGaAs/GaAs
t e d r a
GH Kated i AGH Ka
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

a Elektroniki
X
heterojunction B [T]

Elektroniki A four-terminal t r o n i k
uncertainty ~10-9

a t ed r a E l e k H K a t e d r
source: LNE-SYRTE

iki AGH K (Kelvin) reference

Elektroniki A
resistors G
tedra Elektro
-
dra Elektron G H K a t e d r a
A G H
resistance range: K a
ektrovoltage niki A currentKatedra E
lektroniki 1 Ω ÷ 20M Ω
dra Elek-
Katedra El contacts G
A contacts H A
uncertainty
G H K a t e
a Elektroniki a Elektroniki
R
Katedra
W ~1 ÷ 20 ppm

H K a t e d r G H K a t e d r G H
AG ni k i A stability
n i k i A
tedra Elektro tedra Elektro
2 ÷ 10 ppm/year

niki A G H K a
t r o n i k i A G H K a
t r o n i k i A G H Kate-
atedra Elek k
i k i A G H K n i ki A G H Katedra Ele t r o n iki AGH
t ro n E l e k t r o r a E l e k
k t r o n i k i A G H Katedra l e k t r o n i k i A GH Kated d r a Elektroniki
El e t e d r a E K a t e
a E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Ka a t e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH
K a t e dra Elektro-
dr H K G H
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i ki A t r o n i k i
Katedr–a definition, Elekt H tedra Elek
Kauncertainty GH Kate-
niki AGH Units edra E l e k t r o n i A
realisation,
i k G
E l e k t r o n i k i A
H Katcapacity: G H Katedra oniki AGH
troniki AGelectric ated r a E l e k t r o n i k i A
t e
Ka a potentiald r a E l e k t r
A G[F] HisK i Aof
ikplates H appeares
Gwhich l ektroniki
Elektroniki 1difference farad a capacity of a capacitor between
r a E l e k t r o
ated with a charge of 1 C. roniki AGH K
n
the
a t e d r a E
l e k t r o n i k i A GH Kcharged
of 1 V when
a Elekt d r a Elektro-
d ra E Thompson-Lampard calculable K a t e d
capacitorr H K a t e
e d r a E l e k t r oniki AGH K a t e d r a E lektroniki AG K a t e dra Elek-
Kat A G H A G H
H K a t e d r a EleCktroniki
1
H K a t e d r a Elektroniki G H Katedra
AG i k i A G n i k i A
A G H K a tedra EleCktro
n
A G H K a tedra Elektro A G H Kate-
niki
2

k t r o n i k i k t r o n i k i
i k i A G H Kaε tedra Ele n i k i A G H Katedra Ele t ro n iki AGH
t ro n a E l e k t r o ed r a E l e k
GHπ K dr AGH Kat
C = C = C = ln 2 =a2t.e
0
818376 pF/m
i Elektroniki
1
A
2 0

E l e k t r o n i k i r a E l e k t r o n i k K a t e d r a
a t ed
AGH K troniki AGH
uncertainty ~0.02 ppm

n i k i capacitance e k dra Elektro-

source: PTB

dr a E l ek t r o
working standards K a t e d r a E l K a t e
H G H
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K atedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
dra Elektroni dra Elektroni
<10pF - air

t e t e H Katedra
<1µF - mica

A G H K a
>1µF - polipropylene
ki A G H K a i k i A G
r o n i k t r o n
atedra Elekt
uncertainty – 0.02 ÷ 2%
Katedra Ele H Katedr
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
source: IET-LABS
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

7
 -
A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H Katedra Ele
k-
n i k i A n i k i A
AGH Kate
dra Elektro
A G H K a tedra Elektro k i A GH Katedr
a
k t r o n i k i l e k t r o n i
atedWhat ra Elediffers a „capacity Katedra form
standard” E a „capacitor”? H Kate-
niki AGH K e d r a E l e r o n i ki A
kt Capacitor, type 1404,KIET G H
t e d r a E l ektroniki AG
K a t
Primary Standard a _LAB INC. H
troniki AGH t e d r a E l e k t r oniki AGH a t e d r a E l e ktroniki AG
GH Ka K
Elektroniki A d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH K a t e d r a Elektroniki
e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t r oniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra K a t H K
e d r a E l ektroniki AG
H
K a t e d r a E lektroniki AG K a t edra Elek-
K a t ki A G H ki A G H
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A o n i k i A r o n i k i
i A G H K atedra Elektr i A G H K atedra Elekt k i A GH Kate-
ni k l e k t r o n i k l e k t r o n i
r o n i k i A G H Katedra E
t r o n i ki A G H Katedra E l e k t r o niki AGH
t r a E l ek t e d r a E
GH Kated i AGH Ka a Elektroniki
Elektroniki A a t ed r a E l e k t r o n i k
H K a t e d r
iki AGH K Elektroniki A
G
tedra Elektro
-
dra Elektron G H K a t e d r a
ki A G H K a
Katedra El
ektroniki A
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elek-
A A
H K a t e d r a Elektroniki H K a t e d r a Elektroniki G H K atedra
AG k i A G i ki A
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t edra Elektron A G H Kate-
niki A t r o n i k i A k t r o n i k i
i A G H K atedra Elek i k i A G H Katedra Ele r o n i ki AGH
t ro n i k E l e k t r o n a E l e k t
k t r o n i k i A G H Katedra l e k t r o n i k i A GH Katedr d r a Elektroniki
E le e d r a E K a t e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t edra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A k t r o n i k i
H K atedroutsitea Elekt G H Katedra Ele GH Kate-
n i k i A G Units the
l e k t r o SI
n i k i A l e k t r o n i k i A
H K atedra E G H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGunits for expressing a ratio
Kated r a E l e k t r o n i k i A
t e d r a E l e k t r
AGH [dB] Ka i
GH[Np]
Elektroniki A q H Katedra PElektroniki P
neper bel [B], decibel
H K a t e d ra Elektronik
iLki= lnAq G1
[Np] L = log [B] L =E
1
10le⋅ k trPon[idB ki ] AforG lektro-
dra Elektron E
1
log a
K Patedra
power
H K a t e d r
niki AGH ktroniki AG
2 2 2

Kate d r a E l e k t r o
G H K a te d r a E Xl e
[ ] G H K a t e dra Elek-
A A
a Elektroniki Xa Elekteg.roI,nU,ikRi etc.
1
20 ⋅ log dB for other quantities

AG H K a t e d r
k i A G H K a t e 2d r
n i k i A G H Katedra
n i lektro
G H K a tedra Elektro G H K a tedra E G H Kate-
niki A L = 10 ⋅ log (e ) = L ⋅ 10le n i k i A o n i k i A
ln 10
LNp
k t r o k t r
Katedr10a Ele
LdB 10

Katedra E
⋅ log e ≅ 4 . 34 ⋅ L L = ln 10 = L ⋅ ≅ 0 . 23 ⋅ L
iki AGH
dB Np Np Np dB dB

n i k i A G H r o n i ki A G H l e k t r o n
t ro dra - dBm E l e k t ed r a E
l e k t r o n i k i A
logarithmic GHunit Kaoftepower
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat t e d r a Elektroniki
E t ed r a K a
E l ek PtdBm
r o n k
=i10 AGP H Ka
i ⋅ log -10
e d r a
0
E
3
l e k t r10oniki A20GdBm H
a t edra Elektro-
dr a 1 mW H K a t G H K
ektroniki AG Elektroniki A
1 2
tedra Elek-
0.1 10 100 mW

K a t e d r a E l H K a t e d r a H K a
k i A G k i A G
dra Etole 1 Vroni dra Elektroni
other logarithmicktunits (used, eg in acoustics)

A G H K
dBV a–
t e
referenced
r o n i ki A G H K a t e
t r o n i k i A G H Katedra
ElektV k
dBu – referenced
atedrtoa 0.7746 Katedra Ele H Katedr
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

8
 -
A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K atedra Elek-
i k i A n i k i A
dra Elektron tedra Elektro GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate Some k t r o
remarksn i k i A G H
about
K a
dBm-s l e k t r o n i ki A
atedra Ele Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K source/load kt r o n i k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
atedraR Eleimpedance atedra Elek
troni ki A G H K
e d r a E l e k t r o Rn i k i A G H K
a t e d r a E l e k troniki AGH
GH Kat K
S L
≠ ≠
niki AGHK = 10 ⋅ log 4R RKa[dB
if R R P P ; P =P + K
lektroniki
S L ⇒
M N M N

Elektroniki A ed r a E l e k t r
dBmo t e d r a E
AGS H KaPt oniki AGH
S L
correction ]
n i ki l e k t r (R + R ) a Elektro-
2

d ra E l e k t r o N

K a t e d r a E S L
H K a t e d r
H ikiΩA G
ektroniki AG lekΩ;trRo=n50
P R = 50 Ω; R = 600 Ω -5.47 dB
edra Elek-
⇒
Ra =E
S L

K a t e d r a E l H K
M
a t e d r 600 ⇒ -5.47 dB
H K a t
A G S L
A G
H K a t e Elektrontoikivoltage/current
draconverting H K a t e dra Elektroni
ki
H Katedra
A G o n i k i A G r o n i k i A G
i A G H K atedUra E RMS
lektr⋅ R ⋅ 10
= 1[mW] L
PdBm 10

i
= R [kΩ] ⋅ 10
A L
G H
PdBm 10
K atedra Elekt k i A GH Kate-
ni k l e k t r o n i k l e k t r o n i
atedra0 dBm E ⇒ U = 223,6 mV H Katedra E
R = 50 Ω:
H K G niki AGH
L RMS

t r o n i k i A G E l e k t r o n i k i A a E l e k t r o
Ω:
a e d r
GH Katedr
R = 600 0 dBm U = 774,6 mV
AGH Kat
L ⇒ RMS

Elektroniki A dBm addition a t ed r a E l e k t r o n i k i

H K a t e d r a Elektroniki
iki AGH K G
– BE CAREFUL!
dra Elektron result in igeneral K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elektro
-
G H A G
iki phase relations
ektronik A will depend onH dra Elektand
the types of added signals rontheir dra Elek-
Katedra El A G K a t e A G H K a t e
H K a t e d r a Elektroniki H K a t e d r a Elektroniki GH Katedr
a
AG ek t r o n i k i A G l ek t r o n i k i A
atedra El Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
K atedra Elekt Katedra Ele
k
H
t ro n i ki A G H
t e d r a E l e k t r o n i ki A G H
a t e d r a E l e ktroniki AG
GH Ka K
Elektroniki A d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH K a t e d r a Elektroniki
e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t ed r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A t r o n i k i
i A G H K atedra Elekprecision
Accuracy,
t
i A G H K atedra Elek k i A GH Kate-
n i k l e k t r o n i k l e k t r o n i
Katedra E H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGH r a E l e k t r o n i k i A G
t e d r a E l e k t r
GH Kated i AGH Ka a Elektroniki
Elektroniki A a t ed r a E l e k t r o n i k
H K a t e d r
iki AGH K Elektroniki A
G lektro-
dra Elektron K a t e d r a H K a t e d r a E
d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH a te d r a E l e ktroniki AG a t e dra Elek-
Kate A G H K A G H K
H K a t e d r a Elektroniki H K a t e d r a Elektroniki G H Katedra
AG i k i A G n i k i A
A G H K a tedra Elektro
n
A G H K a tedra Elektro A G H Kate-
niki t r o n i k i k t r o n i k i
i A G H atedra Elek
Kaccurate precise
i k i A G H Katprecise edra E andle
ro n iki AGH
t ro n i k E l e k t r
ra of agreement between A o n accurate
ed andr a E l e k t
Kate– dcloseness GHquantity Katvalue
E l e k t r o n i k i A
measurement GHvalue accuracy
ed r a E l e k t r o n i k i measured
K a t e d r a Elektroniki
true quantity
t
a E l ek t r o n i ki AGH Ka t e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a tedra Elektro
-
dr measurement precission –G H K af aagreement between measured quantityA G H K
oniki A Elektroniki
closeness values

K a t e d r a E
obtained l ekbytrreplicate measurements of the same quantity
i A G H K a te d r a
A G H K a tedra Elek-
Elekt–rcloseness onik a Eleofktanroinfinite nik i
A G H K a
measurementt e dra trueness
r o n i of agreement
k i A G H K
between a t e draverage
the
t r o n i k i A G H Katedra
Elekt quantity values and a reference k
atedra measured Katedra Ele H Katedr
number of replicate quantity value
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

9
 -
A G H K a tedra Elektro
ki
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K atedra Elek-
i k i A n i ki A
dra Elektron tedra Elektro GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate k t r o n i k i A G H K a
l e k t r o n i ki A
atedra Ele Quantity value, measurement Katedra E result Kate-
niki AGH K r o n
a Elekt Q – quantity valuei k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
K aQte=dr|Q|[Q] K atedra Elek H
troni ki A G H
t ed r a E l e k t
|Q| r n i k i A
o- numerical value G H
a t e d r a E l e ktroniki AG
GH Ka [Q] – unit roniki AGH
K lektroniki
Elektroniki A e d r a E l e k t K a t e d r a E
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t r oniki AImGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra K a t H K
e d r a E l ektroniki AG
H
K a t e d r a E lektroniki AG ??? Katedra Elek-
K a t niki AGH
??? ???
H
K a t e d r a E lektro|Q| K a t e d r a E lektroniki AG |Q|
Katedra
AG H o n i k i A G H |Q|
r o n i k i A G H
atedra Elektr atedra Elekt
Re

ni ki A G H K
l e k t r o n i k i A G H K
l e k t r o n i k i A GH Kate-
A G H K atedra E uncertainty
measurement
i A
(measure of
G HtrueKvalue atedra E
accuracy)
o niki AGH
t r o n i k i a E l e k t r o n i k e d r a E l e k t r
an interval
tedr (eg. 95%) probabilityiki AGH Kat
around
Kasignificant
a measured result, in which a of measured quantity may be

Elektroniki A
GfoundH with
a t ed r a E l e ktron H K a t e d r a Elektroniki
iki AGH K Elektroniki Pr{xA∈ (-U+x,x+U)}H
G
tedra Elektro
-
dra Elektron
Pr = 0.95

H K a t e d r a p
G
= 0.95
K a
ektroniki A G U U
intervala Elektronik
confidence
i A
dra Elek-
Pr{x ∉ (-U+x,x+U)} = 0.05

Katedra El t e dr t e
p

A G H K a A G H K a
a Elektroniki a Elektronxik± iU
result of measurement:
a
AG H K a t e d r
k t r o n i k i xAG H K a t e d r
l ek t r o n i k i A GH Katedr
atedra El e p x
Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
i A G H K atedra Elekt i k i A G H Katedra Ele
k
r o n i ki AGH
t ro n i k E l ek t r o n a E l e k t
k t r o n i k i A G H Katedra l e k t r o n i k i A GH Katedr d r a Elektroniki
E le e d r a E K a t e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A lekt r o n i k i A k t r o n i k i
i k i A G H K
Notationatedra Eof measurement n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
results n i k i A GH Kate-
n l e k t r o l e k t r o
Katedra E
H prefixes G H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGSI r a E
ated name symbol value l e k t r o n i k i A
a t e d r a E l e k t r
GH Kvalue i Aname GH K a Elektroniki
Elektroniki A K a t e d r a E l e k t r o n i k symbol
H K a t e d r
iki AGH roniki AcG lektro-
10 1 deca da -1 10 deci d
10 lekt centi
dra Elektron 10 2 hecto
K a t hedra E -2

mi AG
H K a t e d r a E
d r a E l e k t r o niki 1010AGH
3 kilo k
K
-3

a t
10
e d r a E mili tronik
l e k a t e dra Elek-
Kate 6 mega
iA G G H M -6 10 micro µ
A G H K
H K a t e d r a Ele1010ktroniktera
9 giga
H
-9

K
10
a t e d r a E nponiki
nano lektr
G H Katedra
AG 12

on i k i A TG -12 10 pico
f lektro
n i k i A
A G H K a tedra1010Elektrpeta
15 P
i A
-15

G
10
H K femto dra E
a te
i A G H Kate-
niki 18
lek
exa
t r o n i k
E -18 10 atto
zepto atedzra El
a
e k t r o n i k
n i k i A G H Kat10e10dra Ezetta
21 Z
o n
-21

i ki
10
A G H K y
k t r o n iki AGH
t ro E l e k t r ed r a E l e
atedra
24 jotta Y -24 10 yokto

l e k t r o n i k i A GH K(scientific) E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat t e d r a Elektroniki

E exponential
H Ka t ed r a
notation K a
E l ek t r oxni=ki±M⋅10AG E; M∈[1,10); E∈C
t e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t edra Elektro-
dr a H K a G H K
a t e d r a E ek ronkΩikiequal
eg: Ist10
l AtoG10 000 Ω ???
H K a te d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K ⇒ikUi =A G k i A G
dra Elektroni
± 1% n 100 Ω ⇒1.00 ⋅10 Ω 4

G H K a t e dra Elektro G H K a t e A G H Katedra

A lekt r o n i ki A significant
k t r o n i k i
dramayE Katofed5%.ra Ele
figures

niki AG HK
Notation „R a tekΩ”
= 10 suggest that 9.5 kΩ < R < 10.5 kΩ,
e k t r o n i k i A G soH uncertainty
k t r o n i k i A G H Katedr
Katedra E l le
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G H Katedra E
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

10
 G H K a t e dra Elektro-
ki A
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K atedra Elek-
i k i A n i ki A
dra Elektron tedra Elektro GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate Measurement k t r o n i k i A G H
methods
K a
and results l e k t r o n
(VIM)i k i A
atedra Ele Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K direct edraofEmethod lekt r o n i k i A G H
Elekt any r o n i k i A G H
atvalue atedofraperforming
troni ki A G H K
calculations,
ed r a E
eg l e k t
measuringr o n a voltage using a voltmeter;atedra Elektroniki AGH
a quantity is obtained without
i k i A G H theK need

GH Katmethod niki AGH

K lektroniki
Elektroniki A indirect HofK d r a E l
ate is obtained from directe k t r o K a t e
GHof other quantities, lektro-d r a E
l e k t r o n i ki AG value a quantity
a E l e k t r iki A
measurement
onknown dr a E
d ra E related to
G
the
H
measured
K e d r
atcalculations, eg: determiningnikthe
quantity through mathematical
i A G H K
equation ateand
ektronivoltmeterki A ektro edra Elek-
performing necessary resistance using
Elcircumference
Katedra El lektroniki
and ammeter orK
A G H a tedra the
determinig
ki
of a cirle using
A G H K a
its t
G H K a t e dr a E diameter;
G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A o n i k i A r o n i k i
atedra Elektr atedra Elekt
Simplified procedure:

ni ki A G H K
l e k t r o n i k i A G H
addition/subtraction: K
l e k t r o n i k i A GH Kate-
Katedππππ
A = π⋅d E
ra ......... atedrnumber a E of decimal places as
H Knumber niki AGH
round the result to the same

t r o n i k i A G H e k t r o n i ki theA leastG accurate

E l e k t r o
atedr a E l at e d r a
AtoGtheHsameK
x ddd
GH Krrrr......... multiplication/division
i a Elektroniki
Elektroniki A H K a t e d r a E l e k t r
roundo n i
thek result number of significant
H K a t e d r
iki AG
rrrr......... figures as
ektronithe
the least
ki rootAorG
accurate number
edra Elektro-
dra Elektron e d r a to aE l a t
+rrrr.........
H K a t rising power/finding logarithm
A G H K
ektroniki AG roniki
zzzzzz.........
ra Elethektoperation Katedra Ele
k-
round the result to the same number of digits as is in the

Katedra El n i k i A G H K a
number t e dundergoing
n i k i A G H
dra Elektro tedr E
These problems will beaconsidered lektinromore detail during the
GH Katedr
a
AGH Kate k t r o n i k i A G H
lecture onK theauncertainty of the measurement
l e k t r o n i k i A
atedra Ele Katedra E Kate-
niki AGH K r o n i k i A G H t r o n i k i A G H
K atedra Elekt Katedra Ele
k
H
t ro n i ki A G H
t ed r a E l e k t r o n i k i A G H
a t e d r a E l e ktroniki AG
GH Ka K
Elektroniki A d r a E l e k t r o niki AGH K a t e d r a Elektroniki
e
E l e k t r o n i k i AGH Kat e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t e d r a Elektro-
d ra H K a t G H K
a t ed r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i k i A t r o n i k i
i A G H K
Summary atedra Elekt i A G H K atedra Elek k i A GH Kate-
n i k l e k t r o n i k l e k t r o n i
Katedra E H Katedra E oniki AGH
troniki AGH- measurement r a
ed or indirectE l e k t r o n i k i A G
t e d r a E l e k t r
i AGH Ka
→ comparison with the standard and determining relationship
-G H K→atdirect ra Elektronik
i
Elektroniki A- one assumesHthatK k t r o n i k
comparison
a t ed r a E l e H K a t e d
roniki AG
such comparison is repeatable and reproducible
usesG -
dra Elektron- one knows ihowA
i A
-ikone adequate measurement eauipment and
to G use H K atedra Elekt
procedures
A G H K a tedra Elektro
lektroniki
them properly
onik
ktrmeasurement
-ethe dra E dra Elek-
Katedra El- we are aware
is performed under propereconditions
G H K a t G H K a t e
Elhow niki Athe result of a measurement
ekttorointerpret
about possible errors and uncertainty of
a Elektroniki
measurement A
AG H K a t d
-eone r aknows
k i A G H K a t e d r
n i k i A G H Katedra
i
A G H K a tedra Elektro
n
A G H K a tedra Elektro A G H Kate-
niki t r o n i k i k t r o n i k i
Gross Errors
ra Elek (measurement probes,Gcables
Katedinstruments atedra Ele
t ro n i k i A G H deffective
E l e k t r o n i k i A H K
etc)
r a E l e k t ro n iki AGH
tedof
atype
H Kormultimeters raa measurement is set improperly, Kated
HΩ, etc...
AG Elektroniki
the range eg A,
l e k t r o n i k i A G E l e k t r o n i k i t e d r a
E hand-held
t ed r a K a
a E l ek t r o n i k i AGH Ka t e d r a E l e k t roniki AGH a t edra Elektro-
dr H K a G H K
a t e d r a E l ektroniki AG H K a t e d r a Elektroniki A H K a tedra Elek-
K k i A G k i A G
G H K a t e dra Elektroni G H K a t e dra Elektroni A G H Katedra
A r o n i ki A k t r o n i k i
atedra Elekt Katedra Ele H Katedr
niki AGH K l e k t r o n i k i A G H
le k t r o n i k i A G
Katedra E H Katedra E
troniki AGH k t r o n i k i A G
o n i k i A G H Katedra Ele
Elekt r

11