The Basic Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

• The state of any physical system is specified, at each time t, by a state vector
|𝜓(𝑡)⟩ that contains all the needed information about the system.
• Any superposition of state vectors is also a state vector.
• To every physically measurable quantity A, called an observable or dynamical
෡.
variable, there corresponds a linear Hermitian operator A
• The only possible result of such a measurement is one of the eigenvalues an
෡
(which are real) of the operator A
 Measurement in Quantum Mechanics
• In quantum mechanics, the measurement process perturbs the system
significantly.
• Measurements on classical systems, leads to small change that can be neglected.
• The act of measurement generally changes the state of the system.
• Consider a system which is in a state |ψ⟩.
• Before measuring an observable A, the state |ψ⟩ can be represented by a linear
superposition of eigenstates.
• |𝜓⟩ = 𝑎1 |ψ1⟩+ 𝑎2 |ψ2⟩+ 𝑎3 |ψ3⟩+….. + 𝑎𝑛 |ψn⟩
• The act of measuring A changes the state of the system from |𝜓⟩ to one
of the eigenstates |𝜓n⟩ of the operator A.
 Measurement in Quantum Mechanics
• The result obtained is the eigenvalue 𝑎𝑛 .
• If the system is in the eigenstate |𝜓n⟩ , a measurement of the observable A
yields with certainty (i.e., with probability = 1) the value an without changing
thestate |𝜓n⟩ .
• Before a measurement, there is no certainty for a system being in a particular
eigen states |𝜓n⟩.
• After the measurement; only a probabilistic outcome is possible.
• It is the effects of the interference by the equipment on the system which is
the essence of quantum mechanics
 Operators
• An operator represents a mathematical operation that transforms one function
into another.
෠ 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)
• 𝑄𝑓
෠ 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), 𝑄෠ is a number
• 𝑄𝑓
𝑑𝑓 𝑑
• 𝑄𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑄෠ =
෠ =differential operator
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
෠ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑄෠ is a null operator
• 𝑄𝜓
෠ 𝑥 = 𝜓 𝑥 , 𝑄෠ = 1෠ =unit operator
• 𝑄𝜓
 Observables
• An observable is a dynamical variable that can be measured.
• The dynamical variables are the position, linear momentum, angular
momentum, and energy.
• A Hermitian operator is associated with every physical observable.
Observables
 Expectation value
• Information is quantum mechanics is in the form of probabilities.
• The outcome of a single measurement of a physical quantity cannot be
guaranteed.
• Consider a particle whose motion is confined to X axis.
• Large number of observations of a wavefunction 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 to find position
• The average of all these x values in the state represented by 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 is called
expectation value of x in the state 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 .
• Represented by <x>.
• N1 particles in x1 and N2 particles in x2…..
 Expectation value (continuous distribution)
σ𝑖 𝑁𝑖 𝑥𝑖
• 𝑥ҧ = σ 𝑁𝑖
=Average position coordinates of the distribution

• For a single particle, the number Ni of particles at xi is replaced by the

probability that the particle be found within an interval dx at xi .
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑥 = ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥

∞ 2 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 (Total probability=1)
∞ 2 𝑑3 𝑟
• In 3D space, 𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜓 𝒓, 𝑡
 Expectation value
• For any arbitrary function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ‫𝑥( ∗ 𝜓 ׬‬, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑3 𝑟
• The expectation value of position vector in normalized state 𝜓 𝒓, 𝑡
𝑟Ԧ = ‫𝑟( ∗ 𝜓 ׬‬, Ԧ 𝑡 𝑑3 𝑟
Ԧ 𝑡) 𝑟Ԧ ψ 𝑟,
 Expectation value (discrete distribution)
መ
⟨𝜓|𝐴|𝜓⟩
𝐴 =
⟨𝜓|𝜓⟩

𝐴 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑛
𝑛

• The expectation value of an observable is obtained by adding all permissible

eigen values an, with each an multiplied by the corresponding probability Pn
Sequential Stern Gerlach Experiment
 Sequential Stern Gerlach Experiment
• The oven produces the beam of atoms.
• Stern-Gerlach(SG) device with two output ports for the two possible values of
the spin component.
• Two counters to detect the atoms leaving the output ports of the SG device.
• The SG device is labeled with the axis along which the magnetic field is
oriented.
• The up and down arrows indicate the
two possible measurement results.
ℏ
• These are Sz = ± where the field is oriented along the z-axis.
2
 Sequential Stern Gerlach Experiment
• Only two possible results in this case, generally referred to as spin up and spin
down.
• The physical quantity that is measured (Sz ) is called an observable.
• The field gradient is such that the spin up states were deflected upwards.
• The Stern-Gerlach device sorts (or filters, selects or analyzes) the incoming
ℏ
particles into the two possible outputs Sz = ± .
2

• Stern-Gerlach device can be called as an analyzer.

• The ket |+⟩ is a mathematical representation of the quantum state of the atoms
ℏ
that exit the upper port corresponding to Sz = +
2
 Sequential SG Experiment-1
ℏ
• The lower output beam is labeled with the ket |−⟩, that corresponds to Sz = - .
2

• The input beam is labeled with |ψ⟩.

ℏ ℏ
• |+⟩, |+ ⟩, |Sz=+ ⟩, |+𝑧⟩,
Ƹ | ↑ ⟩ :all equivalent
2 2

X
Sequential SG Experiment-1

Experiment-1

X
 Sequential SG Experiment-2
• Two Stern-Gerlach analyzers both aligned along the z-axis
• The atomic beam coming into the first Stern-Gerlach analyzer is split into two
beams at the output.
• The spin component is measured again by directing those atoms into the
second Stern-Gerlach analyzer.
• No atoms are ever detected coming out of the lower output port of the second
Stern-Gerlach analyzer.
• All atoms that are output from the upper port of the first analyzer also pass
through the upper port of the second analyzer
Sequential SG Experiment-2

Experiment-2
 Sequential SG Experiment-2
• When the first Stern-Gerlach analyzer measures an atom to have a z-
ℏ ℏ
component of spin Sz = + , then the second analyzer also measures Sz = + for
2 2

that atom.
• The first analyzer prepares the beam in a particular quantum state |+⟩ and the
second analyzer measures the resultant beam.
 Sequential SG Experiment-3
• The second Stern-Gerlach analyzer has been rotated by 90° to be aligned with
the x-axis.
• The second analyzer measures the spin component along the x-axis rather than
z-axis.
• The atoms appear at both possible output ports of the second analyzer.
• Atoms leaving the upper port of the second analyzer have been measured to
ℏ
have Sx = + .
2

ℏ
• Atoms leaving the upper port have Sx = − .
2
Sequential SG Experiment-3

Experiment-3
 Sequential Stern Gerlach Experiment
• Each of these ports has 50% of the atoms that left the upper port of the first
analyzer.
• There are still only two possible outputs of the second Stern-Gerlach analyzer.
• We cannot predict which of the second analyzer output ports any particular
atom will come out.
• The arrival sequences at any counter are completely random.
• There is a 50% probability that an atom from the second analyzer will exit the
upper analyzer port and a 50% probability that it will exit the lower port.
• The collapse after the z-measurement didn’t give the spin a definite x-value —
it gave it a definite z-value at the expense of making x completely uncertain.
 Sequential SG Experiment-4
• Atoms entering the third analyzer have been measured by the first Stern-
Gerlach analyzer to have spin component up along the z-axis
• The second analyzer shows that the spin component up along the x-axis.
• The third analyzer then measures how many atoms have spin component up or
down along the z-axis.
• Classically, the final measurement would yield the result spin up along the z-
axis, because that was measured at the first analyzer.
• This is another key feature of quantum mechanics: a measurement disturbs
the system.
Sequential SG Experiment-4
 Sequential SG Experiment-4
• The second analyzer has disturbed the system such that the spin component
along the z-axis does not have a unique value, even though we measured it
with the first analyzer.
• There is a fundamental incompatibility in trying to measure the spin component
of the atom along two different directions.
• Sx and Sz are incompatible observables. We cannot know the measured values
of both simultaneously.
• The incompatibility of the spin components means that we cannot know which
direction the spin is pointing. The quantum mechanical spin vector cannot be
said to be pointing in any given direction.
 Sequential SG Experiment-5
• Both beams from second analyzer combined with our new method and sent to
the third analyzer.
• As per classical probability analysis, the probability for an atom leaving the first
analyzer to take the upper path through the second analyzer and then exit
through the upper port of the third analyzer is 25%.
• The total probability to exit from the upper port of the third analyzer when
both paths are available, would be 50%.
• Similarly, 50% from the lower port.
Sequential Stern Gerlach Experiment
 Sequential Stern Gerlach Experiment
• The results show that all the atoms exit the upper port of the third analyzer and
none exits the lower port.
• The atoms now appear to “remember” that they were initially measured to
have spin up along the z-axis.
• By combining the two beams from the second analyzer, we have avoided the
quantum mechanical disturbance.
• Allowing more ways or paths to reach a counter results in fewer counts.
• Classical probability theory cannot explain this aspect of quantum mechanics