-Assignment 1
Linux is the foundation of many DevOps tools and cloud infrastructure.
Understanding Linux commands, networking concepts, and configuration is crucial.
Theory Questions (10 points)
a) Linux Commands
• Describe the following commands and give practical scenarios for their
usage:
o ls, chmod, ps, grep, df, ip addr, ping, netstat.
(Example: How would you use ps to find all processes owned by a
specific user?)
ls: it lists all the file & directories on the current working directory
Example for ls (ls -ltr) : ls -ltr is used for viewing files in a directory sorted by
when they were last changed, could also find the oldest or most recent files easily.
Chmod: it Changes file permissions.
Example for chmod (chmod+x): chmod+x add execution for the given file for the
current user & groups and others; for example rwx,r-x,--x
ps: Displays active processes.
Example for ps: ps -u sameh lists all processes owned by user sameh.
grep: Searches for patterns in files or output.
Example for grep: grep -i “sameh”
searches case-insensitively for the word "sameh" in the access log
file.
df: Shows disk space usage.
Example for df: df -h gives human-readable disk usage info.
Ip addr: Shows IP addresses and interface details.
Example for ip addr: ip addr show eth0 displays info about
the eth0 interface (network using wire).
ping: Sends a number of packets to check network connectivity.
Example for ping : ping google.com checks if the system can
reach the internet.
netstat: Displays network connections and routing tables.
Example for netstat: netstat -tuln shows all listening
TCP/UDP ports.
b) File System and Permissions
• Explain the Linux file system hierarchy. What is the purpose of directories
like /etc, /usr, /var, and /dev?
Linux File System Hierarchy
/etc: Configuration files for the system (e.g., /etc/passwd,
/etc/ssh/ssh_config).
/usr: User-installed software and shared libraries (e.g., /usr/bin,
/usr/lib).
/var: Variable files like logs, mail, print spoolers (e.g., /var/log/syslog).
/dev: Device files representing hardware (e.g., /dev/sda for a disk).
• How do file permissions work in Linux? Describe the permission types and
what the output rwxr-xr-- means for a file.
Linux file permissions follow the format:
rwxr-xr-- (10 characters: 1 file type + 9 permission bits)
• First character: File type (e.g., - = file, d = directory)
• Next 9 characters: Permissions for:
o User (owner): rwx → read, write, execute
o Group: r-x → read, no write, execute
o Others: r-- → read only
Example: rwxr-xr--
• Owner can read, write, execute
• Group can read and execute
• Others can only read
c) Linux Networking Concepts
• Compare TCP and UDP. When would each protocol be more appropriate?
Feature TCP UDP
Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless
Reliable (ensures delivery, Unreliable (no guarantee of delivery or
Reliability
order) order)
Slower due to overhead
Speed Faster, minimal overhead
(Handshaking)
Web (HTTP/HTTPS), Email
Use Cases Video streaming, VoIP, DNS, gaming
(SMTP), SSH
When to Use:
Use TCP for applications where data integrity and order are critical.
Use UDP for speed-critical apps where occasional data loss is acceptable.
• What is the role of DNS in networking? Explain how DNS resolution works in
Linux (e.g., with the dig command).
DNS and DNS Resolution
Role of DNS: Translates human-readable domain names (like google.com)
into IP addresses.
DNS Resolution in Linux:
User runs dig google.com.
Linux queries /etc/resolv.conf for DNS server IP.
The DNS server resolves the domain and returns the IP address.
Example with dig:
dig google.com
Returns DNS query result including:
• ANSWER SECTION: shows resolved IP address.
• QUERY TIME: time taken for resolution.
