t r u m e n t i n n ano e n s u r e n e n t a

Eiectrors
have 400 turns. Calcula
CHAPTER 18
each
secondary windinE* he
primary and actual
core los

17-11 The magnetic core in

Irobietm
i/0 nas peTmeability of 950 The co
a Telative

sectional area is 0.5 10 m,

ana he magnetic path length is te .
cross

Calculate the maximum

in a
lux densily, and the

magnetic cofe is measured

required primary curr
as 5.2 W at 40 Hz and e
Introduction to Iransducers
17-12 The power loss
hysteresis and eddy-current losses at 60 1Hz
BO Hz. Calculate the

PRACTICE PROBLEM ANSWERS

Objectives
17-1.1 75 this chapter, you will be able to
After studying the
17-2.1 6.2AA 1 . D r a w d1agratns
to shOw
emperature characteristhes, and
show how it is used as a
17-3.1 78
17-5.1 2.0T, 0.975A
operation oT potentiometric and
strain gauge types of resistive temperature monitor
17-6.1 10.01 W, 22.9 W transducers. ENplain each type, DIscuss the operahon ota

show how the output sgnal is emiconductor ternpertature efsc,

derived, and make calculations and show now it s used n a a i r t

Draw a diagram to show the

involving input displacement and
tor a
output resistance change given
constructton ot a photocconductve
strain gaußge cel, sketch its characteristics, and
2. Using diagrams, explain the show how it is used as a light levei

operation of a variable reluctance monitor. Make caiculat1cons

displacement transducer, and involving incident light level and
calculate the inductance change lo current in à arcuit using a

specitied displacement. photoconductive cell.

riable
how how a linear variable 10. Explain the operation of a
auterential transducer (LVD)
produces an ac output voltage with
photodiode
charactenstics, and show how show
how it
a
an
amplitude and phase dependant may be
operated asdevce ana as a
the displacement of the core. photoconductive
upon
Make calculations involving input photovoltaic device.

displacement and output voltage 1 . Draw a diagram to show the

LVDT, operation of a
photomuiiplier tube
Sketch diagrams of ENplain how the device produces
capacitive radation
displacement and pressure ampiication ot inadent
Sketch photomultiplier tube
transducers, and explain their
operation. Calculate capacitance characterist
hange lor a given input 12. Explain the operation ot a
piezoelectric transducer, and show
splacement. useu tor ana

plain the operation of resistance aa now t may be

torce
pressure heisurements. Make

nperature detector, draw sketch a

involving torce and

show its typical construction, and calculations

Ow how the pressure on a plezoelectric

signal is extracted
while trans ucer, and the resultant output
avoiding error sources.
Dscuss the use of charge and vollage
a
thermocouple
s a thermometer.
Eplain the operation of a
thermistor, sketch its resistance/
 E Chapter
474 Electronc
instrumentati0
0
8Mrodctwon to Transóucers5
INTRODUCTION Movement
a device that monitors Shalt
An electrical
transducer may be defined as a
quantity
and converts it into an
electrical
signall
tor
measturement, or possibly or
controlling an industrial operaton
S,
tansalucers may be classifid
omductin
according to the quantity monitored:
orce, presSune, displacement, tempNTa
humidity, liuid levl, light lerel,
velocty, etc. Method
ot operation is anoth
which transducers may be classified: resistive, inductive, capacitive,
way in
thermal, opthcal, etc.
Yet another classification is actie ana passie; an active transducer bein
Wiper
one that produces an output any external
without supply, electrical wher
a passive transducer requires an external energy source to operate. Mos

electrical transducers are passive; a lew, such as piezoelectric devices a

thermocouples, are active
Each transducer may be defined in terms ot seisittoity, range, linearity, and
accuracy. A displacement transducer that can detect several micrometers
(a) Transducer constructian
movement is much more sensitive than one that requires a movement in b)Circuit dugram
millimeters before it produces a change in output. A temperature transducer Figure 18-1 Potentiometer used as a poSion transoucer The Outpu
votage gves an
that can monitor from -20°C to 100'C obviously has a much smaller range indication of the shaft displacement.
than one that operates from-35Cto 500C. A displacement from 10 mmt O to
15 mm should produce the same transducer output change as a movement Strain Gauges
from 5 mm to l0 mm; the output snould be linear. There should be few A strain gauge uses the resistance
sources of error in a transducer, and it should be possible to calibrate it, so
change in a wire when it is strained to
measure the physical change that produces the strain.
that similarly constructed transducers produce closely similar outputs for a classified as bonded and unbonded. The bonded
Strain gauges are

type is bonded tglued) on to

given input. thephysical quantity under
size of a is
nvestigation. For example, the strain or
The dependant upon its
transducer another consideration, compression in a metal beam may be
investigated by bonded strain gauges.
application. It may also be required to be very tough in relation to the An unbonded strain gauge is normally part ot an individual transducer used
environment where it is to be used. Cost is also of concern; the least expensive to investigate an applied torce.
device witha satisfactorily performance should always be selected.

Force
18-1 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS direvtin insuliing
P
Potentiometer-type Transducer
ralne
A straight ptentiometer may be used as a position, or displacement
transducer,
to
as illustrated in Fig. 18-1.A shaft is shown in Fig. 18-1a) connec
Movable
the potentiometer moving contact, or wiper. The potentiometer has armature
supply voltage (E), and so the position of the wiper determines the oup
vOtage . he shaft displacement can be measured electrically, and the Resistive
wire
measurement can be displayed or perhaps transmitted for further process
Fgure 18-l{b) shows the position transducer circuit diagram, whicn is,
course, that of a
potentiometer.
An advantage
small
ot this
type of transducer is that it can be as
large
5

as
required. Also, the
potentiometer can be perfectly linear,
sensitivity (ratio of output voltage to displacement). A tnus
a when
linear ais between
ressive
wes sirich
or Snk

is that the
output voltage changes in steps as the een ed
strain gauge
The bghtly strung
dameter is aao
hered,
ands
ssiancs

wiper 15 m the movah is subjected

to a lorce The
wire

potentiometer coils, that the transducer resolution

so upon he andture

number ot turns on the potentiometer is depenaen sgve an indication ol the

actual oer

winding.
 umentaon end Measurernenta
76 ElecEroniC
The equation for the resistance ot tne wire tor
The construction of
one
tyPe or unboOnaed strain gauge is illustrated other resistive material
Tial) is
wires, ypically 25 um in diameter
Fig. 18-2. In this
case tour
nicket aloy metal frame and mo
on
=

stretched between insulating POsts a

(18-1)
tightly here p is the specific
armature aPpiied snown, causes
An external force,
as wires to
two of the ot
resistance
the wire in Sam, lis the total length in m,
and the other two wires to nd A is the wire cros-secnonal area lh m .
positively strained increased in length), becomes
substituting for A, the equation
under tension at
negatively strained Shorteneu), 1ne wires Temain
i n resistance, and the
times.
The lengthened wires
exhibit a n
increase
It the wires are appropriately conn d74R /4
wires show a decreased resistance.
into a Wheatstone bridge creut, tne e t a n e ge ca be measured where d is the wire diameter in m.
can be calculated. When the resistance wire 1s
the force that produced the change strained positively, its length is increased and
Figure 18-3 shows bonded strain gauge 1he
a resistive material can
an be its diameter is
decreased, ana
both of these effects cause the
wire resistance
either a wire or a foil bonded on to the insuatng buase, which is then bonded increased. The new length can be
be
to
1dentified as (+A), the new
diameter
to the surface of the item to be investugated. Alternatively, the Tesistive is (d-Ad), and the increased Tesistance 1s (R +
to R divided
AR). For any strain gauge, the
material might be a semiconductor layet a e u s e a nto a silicon base. The
ratio of AR by the ratio of al tol is known as
the gauge factor (G),
strain gauge must, obviously, be placed longitudinaly on the investigated
item, so that the longest parts of the conductors are stretched when the item
where
GF= AR/R
is stretched, and compressed when the item is compressed.
/I (1-2)
Strain
nection
Also, the ratio of Ad to d divided by the ratio of Al to l is referred to as the
Poisson's atio u), where

Ad/d (18-3)
A/l
The relationship between GF and g can be shown to be

Resistve
GF-1+2 (184)

stnp Equation 18-1 rewritten for the increased resistance is

bonded to an insulating base.
R+AR= P U * (18-5)
Because very small resistance changes are involved with strain gauges, (r/4d-Ad)
effects introduce measurement Example 18-1
resistance changes caused by temperature can

errors. One way of dealing with this is illustrated in Fig. 18-4. Two identical
A strain gauge with a 40 cm wire length and a 25 um wire diameter has a
strain gauges are
connected into Wheatstone
strain, and the
a
bridge. Theactive gauge1set
gauge is Dut
resistance of 250 Q and a gauge factor ol 25. Calcuate the change in wire
up to measure
inactive located nearby 15 o
measuring strain. Any changes due to temperature occur in both gauges, and
and diameter when the resistance
length is
change measured as 0.5 2
Assume that the complete length of wire is strained posifively
so these changes cancel each other. Resistance changes due to strain on the
Solution
active gauge will cause bridge unbalance and produce an output voltage
Om Eq. 18-2, l/l= aN/_ 5 12/250 2
GF 25
= 8x 10
R x 8x 1 0
A =Ix8x 10=40 cm
Oupa = 0.32 mm

cti
train F i g u r e 184 Strain 9auge temperan From Eq. 18-4, 2
GF-1.25
2
Kauge may be avoided by e
gauge errors

Wheatstone bridge
 on ecause N, ,
70 EiectroiC where N
is the number o urns te co and A are al
18-6 can be reduced to
/d = ux
A/l= 0.75 x8x 10 constant quanutines, Eq.
18-3,
From Eq. L=
x 10 18-7)
constant.
Ad-d x6x 10
=
25 jum x6x
10 where K Is a

It is seen that the c o l inductance is i n v e r e l y proportional to the air gap

and
1.5 x 10 um and m he target displacement can be measured by
The sensitnty (S) of a straln gauge s the ratio of resistance cha
it length, so
changes
strain gaug anmple 18-1, these
the monitoring t h e c 1 l inductance.

displacement.0, Tor the

m device Example

eferred
sensituvy might
input AR/A.
HOwever, the gau to mighthave four Air HP
be calculated a s S
=

and two strained negativa.u

two
strained positively
wire lengths,
In this case, the
actual armature displacement will Do Target
illustrated in Fig. 18-2.
Al.
be the sanme as

Section Review
Displacenent igu
to show the
constrilction ot a n unbonded strain
18-1.1 Draw a diagram
its operation.
8auge. Explain tength of the air gaps dictates the inductance of the co
and so the target displacement can be indicated by the
Practice Problem
AirS a p coil inductance.
to a 0.28 mm
18-1.1 A strain gauge with
a gauge
tactor o 1s subject
strain. The wire dimensions are cm length and s0 um diameter,
Example 18-2
and the unstrained wire resistance is 55 S2. Calculate the change in
1 mH
wire resistance and diameterit the entire length of the wire is The coil in a
variable reluctance transducer has a
total air gap length is 1 mm. Calculate the inductance change when the air
inductance when the
strained positively.
reduced by 0.2 mm.
15
gap
Solution
18-2 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS New air gap length, z =h-Al=1 mm -0.2 mm
Variable Reluctance Transducer 0 . 8 mm

A ariable retuctance transducer uses the change in reluctance of an air gap in

a magneticpath to measure displacement. Figure18-5illustratesthe operation
From Eq. 18-7,
K=L *l=1mHx1 mm

f this type of transducer which consists of an iron target piece and a u-shaped 1 x 10
with a coil. Two air gaps are maintained between the target and the
h taret displacement length
varies the of the air L 11x
20.8x103
nceof the maunetic circuit. The reluctance gaps, ana
gnetic
path is also involved in the total reluctance, but this is so much smaler unan 1.25 mH
the air g tat neglected. AL =L2-L1=025 mBH
e t can be
getc patn reuctance is Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
This transducer is essentially a transformer with one primary winding two
secondary windings, and an adjustable (b)
where 1s the total air
length, p, is the
core. iron Figure 18-6a) and
gap permeability of free space, ana n illustrates the LVDT construction, and Fig. 18-6c) shows its circuit diagram.
the ar gap cross-sectional area. The inductance at
the coil terminas Note that the secondary output voltages ( and r) are equal in magnitude
inversely proportional to the
reluctance when the movable c o r e is sifuated with equat
to
ot core oPpOsite
sectons
n secondary winding. Also note that outputvoge D 5 in phase with the

(18-6)
Pnary input (v), and that output 7
Is in
antuphase t. ko The
Secondary
windings are connected in Se that the voltages cancel to produce zero
trom the transducer when they are equal and in antiphase.
output
4BO Eectronic instrumentation and
Measurements hepter rcers d81
resolution is infinite; there 1s no step cnange nxe that in a
potentiometer-type
Displacement Displacerment displacement transducer.

Dhsplacement

Displacemen

econdan
Paimary

() Cou orinecuons
Ar
(a) Core displaced up bi Cor dispiacrd dwn

(C) Circuit diagram and waveforms Figure 18-7 When the LVDT core is moved one ouput vota naenes and te one
decreases. The output voltage ampitude and phase gve a measure df the core depilacement
Figure 18-6 A linear varable ditferental transducer (LVD has a primary winding. two
and direction of motion.
secondary windings, and a movable iron core. The two output wavetorms are in antiphase.

When the LVDI core is displaced upward, as illustrated by the diagram in

.
Fig. 18-7a), there is an increase in the flux from the primary linking to secondary
Output
N, and a decrease in that linking to N. This causes an increase in
the amplitude nmary
of t and a decrease in 2, as shown, thus producing a diference output voltage
FSumilarly, when the core is displaced in a downward direction, as in
Fig 18-7b), U2 increases and v, decreases. In this case, v, increases but witn a Output in
180 antiphase
phase shift from the input. So, the output voltage amplitude and phase with prin Figure 1
givea measure of the core displacement and direction of motion. ploted agarst c o r o p

Figure 188 shows a graph of the output voltage ( ) versus tne core
inctude ruggednes high
advantages over other types transducers
LVDT
of
displacement (a). Note that the graph is mostly linear, but becomes nonlinear
infinite resolubon,
and Fowe consumpho
at large
displacements. Consequentiy, the device use is limited to the linear ensiuvity, good linearity, n
co

LVDT disadvantages are n an

range. Also note that the output
Zero.
voltage cannot be reduced completely to E most important
a r e required to produce
a mersurabve oufput a n d
that the cone

nents
neLvdiscussed above provides an ac output, but many commerciau mass limits its dynamic response
availabie LVDIS include rectification and smoothing circuits, so that a ae is 10
Example 18-3 cue displacement
output voltage is available. For ac outputs, the maximum
secondary vo by an LVDI when the ourput
A S0 mV output is produced displacement when the
ampltude typically equals the primary input amplitude. Alternauv m r o m its z e r o position.
Calculate the core

output may be stepped down to give a 1 mV output for each

is 35 mV.
m . The maximum ac input frequency is usually 20 k
should be much
higher than any core Solution S m
displacement frequency Sensitivity S 10 mm
aisplacement range may be as small as 25 mm or as
transducer sensitivity could be as large as 5mw
of 40 V for each
high
as 40 V/mm; an
output vo change 35m 7 m
mm of core
displacement. The output/ ai ovice d= 5mV/mm
relatonshp 15
typically linear to within #0.25%. Note that the
ae Displacement
 Chapter ntroduction to Transducers 483
Et trumentatin and Neasurements

Section Review Area (A)

18-2.1 Sketch the cireuit diagram and wavetorms tor an LVDT. Show

how the output waveform amplitude is

changed by movement of
the core

Practice Problems (a) Capacitanoe may e varied by axdjusting

(o) apacitance varied by
18-2.1 The ooil in a variable reluctance transducer has a 0.5 mH adjusting A

inductance when the total air gap lengthis 1.3 mm. The inductance wded
increases to 0.55 mBl when the target is moved eloser to the core.
Calculate the movement ot the target. Delectric Pa

18-2.2 An LVDT with 0.5 V/mm sensitivity has its output amplified by
--
a factor of 50 and applied to a meter which can display aminimum
of 1 m , Calculate the overall sensitivity ot the system, and
determine the minimum detectable core displacement.

() Capacitance vared by adjustng the dheletric (d) Capactance vanied by adjustingA

18-3 CAPAcITIVE TRANSDUCERS Figure 18-9 Capactive displacement transducers The capacitance depends upon the plate
isplacement, and so the capacitance can be used as an indcabion of displacement
Capacitive Displacement Transducers
Example 18-4
The equation tor the capacitance between two plates sparated by air or
A parallelplate capacitive transducer has a plate area ( x te) = (40 mm x 40
another dielectric iss
mm) and plate spacing u) = 0.5 mm. Calculate the device capacitance and
C (I8-8)
the displacement (Ad) that causes the capacitance to change by 5
d pF. Also
Equation 1S 8 gives capacitance C in tarads when e, is the relative Permittivity determine the transducer sensitivity
of the dieletric, , is the permittivity ot tree spar (884 10*),
x A is
the Solution
,S84*10 x(40x 40x 10) m
crass-sevtional ana of the plates in m, and d is the distanoe between the
Eq 188, C
Plates in m. 0.5 mm
189 shows several parallel-plate capacitors,
Figure
when used in a displacement transducer.
and illustrates hoW = 28.3 pF
they might be adjusted Adjustment rom Eq. 18-8, C-AC r o
of the G) between the plates lpart (al gives a
distance capacitance variation 1+M
AC) inversely proportional to Ad. Adjustment of facing
gives AC proportional to area (A).
plate area lpart (
P'art (c) of the illustration shows a movabe a , OH*
0X1600 x 10m
d+ Ad
dielxtric between the plates This gives two separate plate areas; A, with an
Giving C-3C 28.3pF -5pF
= 0.61 mm
dieleatric. and A, with a solid In this case, there are
air
dieletric. two diftere
capacitanoes in parallel, and increasing the area of one rodues the area otthe Ad = d+ Ad)-d
= 0.6l mm-0.5 mm
other. Ffere again, AC is proportional to AA. Finallyv. part (d) of i g 1 = 0.IU min
a n a t atielectrc capacitor onstructed of halt-dise-shaped plates. t t
movabie plates may b ntatai, thus adjusting the tacing plate area, ana 5pF
gving a capacitanoe variation proportion to AA.
Sensitivity, a 0.11 mm

n the caseota capacitive displacement transducer which varies the distan 454 pF/mm
E the plates (A), the sensitivity is AC/Ad, possibly exprssed Example 18-5 changein length
18-4 calkulate the Ako,
PE/um o r a transfucer which varies the in Evample ) .

(AC7A, and this can be further rduai t

capucitor area, the *H T o r the capacitive
transducer

capacitanoe change
(se
ig
(C/A), as sn* the same (5 pE)
produces
Fig 18ab n a t
transftucer
etsivy

determine the new

 Chagter 18 e
Electrical
Solution
From Eq. 18-5, C
d
Mevable PMate
aA 4 AC 0.5*10 mx5pF (haphragnm
Giving 8.84 x 1 0 - 1 2

283mm*
= 285 mm tesure Amplir
and,
+nmm
0 FiNed plate

1 mm

Sensitivity
5p
7.1 mm Insulating
matena
0.7 pF/mm
(a) cross section of capacitive (D) Circuit
ferom nesee
for ntractinE
Any of the capacitor plate arrangements in Fig 18-9 may be used to pressure transducer from prewury trarsdo
construct a displacement transducer. However, as shown in Examples 184
A capacitance microphone is a capactve pressure fransouer The cacctanca
and 18-5, a transducer that displaces d is much more sensitive than one that Figure 18-10
varies a s a resull
of theinput pressure vanation
I. So, the one that d
changes displaces is most suitable forsuitable
displaces
ofmeasurement l is
for larger
very small displacements, and the one that Section Review
linear
displacements. Note that the relationshipP Detween C a n d I is over the
whole range of l, except tor a portion near 0 . The relationship between C
18-3.1 Explain the construction of a capaatance microphone, and
for small variations in d. discuss its operation and frequency response
linear only
and d is apPproximately
Capacitive Pressure Transducer Practice Problem

Figure 18-10fa) shows the cross section pressure transducer which

of a
18-3.1 A capacitive ransducer is constructed ot two half-disc plates as
consists of a flat fixed plate and a
plastic diaphragm with a metal film as a illustrated in Fig. 18-9d). The plates are
2 mm apart, and each ha
capactance, and
movable plate. This is a
capacitive microphone designed to receive sound a n area of 14 x 10 m.calculate the maxumum

The between the plates the transducer sensitivity in pF/degree

waves as a pressure variation on itsdiaphragm. gap
the transducer
changes when the diaphragm is pressured, consequently,
capacitance changes. 18-4 THERMAL TRANSDUCERS
A Circuit for extracting the microphone signal is illustrated in Fig. 18-10(6).
1he capacitance becomes charged to the level of the supply voltage lec E), Resistance Thermometer
15
metals tends to
increlse as ther empPrature
50
that,
in the absence of a
pressure variation on the diaphragm, there The resistance of all pure
a pestre temperafur aeta ni. Some
no current flow and no resistor voltage drop (eg). capacitor
The
n c r e a s e s , and so metals
are said to
have
normally
C varies with the varying pressure, tne semiconductors,
dereaSe
exhibita in restane with
the
charge equation is (Q=C E). So, as
naterials, notably n t ver
current ) rom have a neure e n n
produces a varying
unear
also and this they any

Charge oncmust vary, t ng

temperature;
most
meais
Stw

has the waveform as the pressure wave, and normal range of

g temperatures enpru
suPply. The current same
and further operag resístance and
dtemeriure
with temperahure
R which can be amplified between Chng
varying voltage drop
auses a across
nship
metal defines
how the reSta ad,
ssu
uaaly

cOtficient (a) of a rereret

processed. to be specified
tor a given
c e n s lor pLatinum,
cOPFet,
he response of this type of transducer to varying frequencies of the inp and it has

its frequency range 15 *0

g 18-1 lists
the temperaturec
20°C. Table
Pressure wave very important. Typically,human
is Cor g e n e p e T a t u n e

and nickel at 0'C and 2 0 . (

15 k12, which
approximately matches the hearing range small
resstance
change

of R, 2, the
Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement Oey.
resistance
r a

sducer

displacements, and they can be much more sensitive than otner ray change (AT) Is

types. because small capacitance values are usually invOv

capacitancCe and the capacitance of connecting cables can be error sou
4BE Electronic Instrumentation and Measurerments Chepter 1 troducon to
AR = R, x a x A T The basic construction ot
Transducers 487
a tsstance thermometer, also known
value is resistance temperature aetector
KD, ilustrated asa
and the new resistance
1S The resit
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig 18-110b).
in
Fig. 18-11(a),
18-11la), and
a its
Ra=R +AR =
R, +
R^a AT element is in the form ot aa coled wire
n
or posi
coiled wire
held eld in tature-sensing
sheath. The sheath may be position inside a protective
RaR, (1 + aA)
(18-9) glass or stainless steel, or another
for the suitable material
some
environmentWhere
type of high temperature
the
KDIs to be employed. The wire may have
TABLE 18-1 Temperature coefticients for metals
ceramic spacers to keep tin placensulation such enamel, or perhaps have as
and
Metal
shown the sensing eiement
avod short circuits. In the arrangement
Platinum U.0U 0.00373
most often used tor
wire s
wound on mica former. The material a

OPP 0.00426 0.00393 the resistance-sensing element very pure platinum. is

0.0068 0.006
Insulated connectingleads are provided, and these must have a much lowe
Nickel resistance than the sensing element. wer

Example 18-6 An RTD is usually connected into a Wheatstone bridge carcuit, as shown
in Fig. 18-12(a). This tor
The resistance of a
of coil nickel
wire is 25 N at 20°C. This rises to 37 Q of the
allows detection of very small changes
in the
resistance sensing element, the meter (M) used to
when the coil in a lhquid tor some time. Calculate the and measure the
has been submerged
temperature of the liquid. bridge unbalance voltage can De calibrated to
indicate temperature.
Solufion Third
es
conecting
of nickel at 20°C is a = 0.006
Temperature coetticient
From Eq. 18-9, AT
AT -1|= S79)
R"0.006l25
80°C

T2=T1 +AT= 20°C + 80°C

Rca
= 100'C

Connecting
eads (a) Connecting lead resistanees
(6) 1hird cones (0) Ra balanos Ra
produce errors

Figure 18-12 The resistance of connecting leads can inrodce ros in a reictsnce
hermometer. The errors may be eliminated by the use of a thd connechng laad.

One
problem that occursarrangement in Fig. 18-12(a) is that the
with the
rotective Rca) introduce errors because they
(Rci and
are
sheath cOnnecting lead resistances
R and Rca due
in to
S e r i e s with the element resistance (R). Any changes

emperature change are measured part offorthe g cangge

as tD A
Kesisu Ra
SOws a tihree-wire connection arrangement deaung Wn s proDem.
element to the other two leads and hvmgaresistance
tnird connecting lead (identical Resistance Rcs is in series wih
K in the bridge
LW I S added
to the circuit.
circuit [Fig. 18-12(c)) and Rca is1S in series with R, soi tKa
n sen
lhat and K balance
and is not involved
Resistance of measuring drcust, and 1snot involed
iS partof the voltage
orm
Serising eemen a n c e Rc
n the bridge balance
in we iemperarure
be employed
over a
very
thermometers
can
e
(a) Resistane thermometer construction () Equivalent aircuit stance are tough and extremely
muke KiDs
rom-200°C to over +650 C. They
supply and bridge
FIgure 18-1 A resistance
thermometer consists of a length of resistive wire upon& g is that the
need for a power
high temperature former. The wire resistance woun davantage temperature-measunng
acv
other types of
erature.
may be used as an indication O than
expensive
 ch pter 8wtroN tscan to rarnehurar
Naunments
instrumentatron, an
a0 Electronic
Thermistoor
thermal and resistor. So, 40
The term fhermistor
1s a
combination ot thermiste
characteristics.
thermistors hav
Most

is a resistor with important thermal

coctficient, but positive temperature coefficient devic
egative temperature
Ppeu to
easurement and
vIces
are also available. wacy
Thermistors are etc.
level,
control of temperature, liquid R (2)
400
Thermistor
material
200

Encapsulating
nae
ontact
leads

Figure 18-14 YpRal uhemisior esistancetemperalure charactenstcs

a) ihermistor construction (b) Some thermistor shapes (18-10)

Figure 18-13 Thermistors are resistors constructive o a material that is very
sensitive to 18-10, R, is the resistance
enperatur
In Eq. at temperature T and R, s the resistance at
Tz- It is important to note that
T, andT are absotute (or Keftm)
In the manufacturing of
thermistors, various mixtures of metallic oxides values: (°C+273) K. temperature
are
pressed into the desired shapes and sintered
(baked)
temperature. ata
high
Electrical wire contact leads are usualy TABLE
included
during the shaping process, 18-2 Typical thermistor specitications
or else metallic film contacts are Thermistor Zero
Thermistors are
deposited after
sintering Isee Fig
18-13a) Kesstance (OC Maxumu
produced in the shape ot beads, probes, discs, washers, etc. o 45C to
working
IFig. 18-13b)]
The
h2sC s0"C)temperatre
typical thermistor
resistance/temperature
characteristics in Fig. 18-14
show that the device resistance (R) 44002AA
decreased substantially when its 15.15 3118 100C mW in h l l
temperature
tlow
1s raised. At O'C, R 1.5 k2; and at 60C, R
70 2. Current mw in
through a thermistor produces power dissipation that can moving
eperature
resistance, and thus introduce error; soraise s
and
change its
device guid
currents are normaly kept to a minimum. 44008 30 ka 9.5
artal speciications tor two
thermistors with different
shown lable 18-2. Both devices have the resistance atresistance value
are in
Example 18-7
25°C identihea
must be effe ns means that, for the specified resistance, there the resistance of the 300 2 thermistor spitied in Table 18-2 at
must be ettectively zero power dissipation in the thermistor. The aissipa Culate
mperatures of 20°C and
ta sthe device power dissipation s0
that can raise its Solution
y
n naication ot how
much the thermistor temperature tnrou8
the resistance ratio at 25/125C. With resistance changes is g For T= 20°C, T, = 25°C +273= 298 K
the ratio
eat s divided by 15.15 to determine its specified at 15.1, and T, 20C+ 273- 293 K
tesistance change with temperature also defined resistance at 125
is
by the constant beta (ß), in
resistance values aa l f e r etno 50°C. Beta ie
t temperat m
the
constant te
an equation that relates
ires.
4BO wctrunic inatrurthentetion and Meauurements
hepte1 itroductian to Tereneucer-4 1
S00 2
tage drop (V2) when
reverse blased, and its
POSIv Oegave aepending upon temperature
From 18-10, that o oefficient
Eq-
1/TT-1/T2)JI18(1/ 298- 1/3) may be
the device
358 2 Integrated circuit precision temperature sensors
stable output voltage with a predictable tem a reverse voltage.
valable that produce a
2 5 ° C + 273 = 298 K
stable output voltage Pdctabie temperature coefficient. The LMI35
For T- 30°C, manufactured by National Semiconductor one is s
ith a
typical
and T230C+273=303 K 55 mA,
m A , and it
and it has
has aa +10mV/°C
Pply current
+10 mV/sc temperature coeff ngtrom 400 uA to
R 300 2
*2 1/TI-1 / 7 ) 3 T / 6 - 1 / 3 u 5

252 9

Figure 18-15 Thermislor used as

a
resistor in an feedback
op-annp nverng ampltier. LM13

A thermistor in
shown
connected
In
feedback resistor
as a
inverting amplifier is
an

in Fig 18-15. this case, the thermistor is supplied with

a constant
current determined by Ry and V n e output oltage 1s directly proportional

to
the thermistor resistance, and so varies with temperature change
Thermistors can respond relaively quickly to temperature changes
ensor tem the (C) Use ofa constant
compared to other thermal devices. Sensitivity 1s good, and the device high
u e

coetoent
resistance means that the connecting leads do not introduce significant errors. Figure 18-16 The LM135
integrated circuit emperature sensor behanves ke a zener diode
Low cost and small size are further advantages. that may have its termperature coeticent calbraied.

Thermocouple Thermometer Because he LMI35 behaves like a Zener diode, a modified

symbol is used to
diode
represent it in a circuit diagram (see Fig. 18-16(a)1, and for
Zener
Thermocouple basics and the use of thermocouples in instruments are treated
design purposes it is treated exactly as a Zener diode.
in Section 3-7, and a true rms meter using a thermocouple is described in symbo
modification is the addition of an adjustment (ad) terminal, as shown. Ihis
1he graphic
Section 15-6. In these situations, the instrument the
voltage applied
measures
allows
thetemperature coefficientto becalibrated ata conveuenteperarue
to the thermocouple heater circuit. Instead of using a current to
heat the heo u t votage at any temperature ( ) can be calculated from
thermocouple junction, the junction might be placed in a situation where it is
heated
directly by the environment; for example, boiling water. The displayed
output can then be calibrated to indicate the temperature of the junction, VecTVoT)* (18-11)

the device
thus, becomes a thermocuple thermometer.
Thermocouple thermometers have the advantages of being ruEged,
where T and T2 are expressed in degrees Kelvin, 1,is the reterence temperature,

and Voc is the output voltage at the reference temperarue for the LM135.
relatively inexpensive, and usable over a wide temperature range (as hugn as the calibration adjustment method
l8-16(5) shows
2N00°C, and gure with the output, and moving
as low as -200°C). Some disadvantages are a low-level output A potentiometer is connected in parallel
crcut current
its
that usually requires amplitication, and a lower accuracy than other cOntact i s connected to the adj terminal. Like other devices, ihe
temperature-measuring devices. and thus introduce emorS; so
i 15 bes
to operate
can produce self-heating,
c u r r e n t as possibie. Ihe use cunentue
of a constant

Semiconductor Temperature Sensor n

as low a supply a stabie temperature coettcicn
shown in Fig. 18-16{©), also helps ensure
A BIT has
base-emitter voltage (V) that changes by
a
approximatey s
n e LMI39 (Z1) isa Zener
diode providinga
constant
voitage o Ka l e across
-2 mV/C when its thereis a constant voltage drup
temperature is increased. A Zener diode has a co Ot Supply voltage
variations. Thus,
the LMI35 Zg).
constant current through
TSuling in a
432 Eectronic instrumenzation and Measurements Chapter 8trodicton to Transducers 493
The LM135 operates over a
temperaure
output voltage can be processed to naicate range
of-55°C to +150 actice Problems

It can also be used the temperature ofits envi and s a

temperature coefficient of 0.0039
together with a
voltage level detector, to contol 4.1 A resistance thermometer has
for example, by resistance Calculate the temperature when
switching it on when air temperature rol at 20C and a
of 1302.
point, and
switching oft again when the temperature drops1below a its resistance measures 175 N.
level. to the given
rises to the resistance ot the 30 k2 thermistor in Table 18-2 at
desireda 1S-4.2 Calculate
Example 18-8 50'C

Determine suitable resistance values tor

Solution R and R, in
Fig. 18-16(c). 18-5 OPTOELECTRONIC TRANSDUCERS

Select
z2500 uA Light U n i t s
be
2.98 V light energy output, or luminous fux (o), rom a source can
The total
lumens (Im), where I Im =1496 miN. The
10 k2 measured in milliwatts (mw or in defined
illumnance) of a light source is
HA luminous intensity (E) (also termed the
unit solid angle (or cone) emitting trom
asthe l u m i n o u s tlux density per
is measured in candelas (cd),
=Ia+l, =500 pA +298 uA source [see
Fig. 18-17(a)). Luminous intensity
to one lumen per unit solid angle (assuming
a
798 HA where candela
one is
equal
For the in all directions).
LMI39, V2 =
6.9V point source that emits light evenly
(18-12)
E,
R 69V2.98 V
98 The light intensity (E) on an area at a given distance trom the soure
=4.9 kS2 (Use4.7 the source tig
ka standard value) etermined trom the surtace area of
a
sphere surrounding
tiux I5 spread over a
o f r meters, the lumnous
giving I, =69V-298 V 1o1/(6). At a
distance
meters. Theretore
4.7 k Spherical area of 4 a r square
: 834 uA (18-13)
elect EA4
z 5 mA in lumens, Eq- 1815 8vs
t h e tuminous
when the total flux is expressed
Qm/m), also termed U.AComanson lr
R, CCZ 15 V-6.9V mtensity in lumens per square meter area a t
Z12 5 mA+ 834 A of
Eq. 18-13 to Eq. 18-12 shows that the luminous intensity per unit
by dividing the source
=
1.39 ka (Use 1.2 kA standard value) any d tance r fror a point source is
determined

ntensitybyr
Section Review
184.1 Draw a sketch to illustrate the
construction of a
thermometer. Discuss the sources of error, and how resistance
ae they
eliminated.
18-4.2 Describe a
thermisto, and sketch
approximate resistance/
18-4.3 ature characteristics tor a thermistor.
Explain the
operation of a semiconductor INant lg
state a typical
discus
Cuss
voltage/ temperature coetticienttemperature sensor
tor the devICe, ana
its
application in a circuit. a) Fus per unit sold a n g
() Phis peT unit a

ux per un
Sd g 9 , or n
p
be expresseu
ught intensity may
gure 18
area.
494 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers
Luminous intensity can also be

(mW/cm), or lumens per square foornmeasured

in
milliwatts per the two materials.
There is a
large change in the resistance of a
dum/tt, also known square e
between lenide cell with changes in ambient temperature, but the
where 1 fc = 10.764 Ix. as a
foot candc mium

The light intensity of caunce f cadmium sulfide remains relatively stable. As with all other
sunlight on earth at noon
the
approximately 107 640 Ix, or
on a
clear care must De
taken
ensure that the power dissipation i not
to

lamp is approximately 161 W/m. The

light intensity from a 1 devices, cell is similar to that of
4.8 x
10 cd excessive. 1The spectral response o a cadmium sulfide
distance of 2 m, this is 1.2x talowing tor
U'e lamp efficiency). Ata he human eye; it responds to visible light. For a cadmium selenide cell, the
can be clearly
10 Ix. An
indicating lamp with 3 tonger wavelength end of
the visible spectrum and
seen at a distance of several meters in
normal room
a
med output spectral response 1s
at
the
conditions. region.
lightino
hting extends
into the mtrared

Example 18-9 p view

Calculate the light intensity 3 m trom a

energy. Determine the total luminous Hux
lamp that emits 25 W
of
3 m from the striking an area of
light
lamp. 0.25 m at Terminal
Solution Termina Coriductor
Eq. 18-13 Conducto Strip
t ensitive
E 25W
4n r
221 mW/m
4rx(3 m) material

Cross secuon

Total flux
EAX area =
221 mW/m* x0.25 m
55 mW cel
A phooconductive
1gure 18-18
Light energy is
electromagnetic radiation; it is in the form of conssts o a Strp ol
nigneseisivemarena

Waves. So it can be defined in electromagnetic

terms of frequency or wavelength, as well as Terminals Siluated beween wo donducios.

intensity. Wavelength, frequency, and velocity are related cel are shown
by the equation characteristics
tor a photoconductive
its resistance can
illumination
pical
c=f the cell
illuminated,
is not
(18-14) It i s s e e n that, when when
reststance ot the cell.
ig 18-19.
where c
velocity = 3x 10' m/s for n than 100 ka. This is
known as the dark
ohms. Note
Hz, and A electromagnetic waves,f= frequency in De greater lew hundred
may tall to
a

wavelength in meters
=
the cell is illuminated, its
resistance

illumination
characteristic are o g a n t h i m i
the
Photoconductive Cell nat the scales on

Light striking
the surface of a material can 100 KT

electrons within the material to provide sufficient energy to cause

break away from their atoms. Thus, 30k
electrons and holes iree
(charge carriers) are created within the material, ana
its resistance is reduced. This is known
consequently
etfect, and the
as the
photoconductive
construction of typical
Fig. 18-18.
a
photoconductive cell is illustrated in
Light-sensitive material is arranged
in the form of
long sup a
Rc (2)
1gzagged across a
disc-shaped base. The connecting terminals fitted to are
the
conducting material on each side of the strip (they are not at the ends of
the
stnp). Thus, the light-sensitive materíal is actually a short, wide
between the two conductors. For added strip 100 0
cOver is
protection, a transparent plastic
usualy included. r u n n

resistance s
admum sulfide (Cds) and cadmium n
selenide (Cdse) are the two uminaton
characierastcs

umnated
cel 5
materials normally used in e

photoconductive cell manufacture. Both respond wnen

18-19 Typical pholocoau a00

rerauvey
ow
Figure daik,
the cel i5 nelav
in light intensity. For cadmium selenide, the when cell used for
Sowiy to changes
response time (,)is about 10 ms, while for cadmium sulfide it may
y
vey nign
shows the circuit
ot a photoconductive
is low and
the
current
relay
Jong as 00ms. Temperature sensitivity is another important be as
ditterence
Figure
18-20(a)

the cell is
illuminated,
its
resIstance

control. When
A96 Electronic Instrumentation and
Measiurements Chapter 18 nruton t6 Ira SoS
is at its maximum. Thus the relay
resistance
energized. When the cell is
is

keeps the current too low to dark Photodiodes

included to limit the relay current to the energize

the
relay. Resistas high is reverse biased, small current due to
1s low.
desired level when slance R
the cell resi nn-iunction there attracted
1s a reverse

enerated holes and electrons being the junction

resistance thermal charge carriers.
across
Increasing the Junction temperature generates
N as minority

hole-electron pairs,
more h
and so the
reverse current is increased. The same

if the junction 1s iluminated (see Fig. 18-21). Hole-electron pairs

ettect o Kcurs

rated by the incident Iight energy, and minorty charge carmers are
cC are ge
erato

swept acroSs
tne JuncuOn,
thus creating a reverse current flow. Increasing the

reverse current level. Diodes designed to

junction
illumination ncreases
the
to
illumination are known as photodiodes.
be sensitive
-V
Light

1-type
IE

(a) Relay control ircuit

b) Schmit
Figure 18-20
trigger control arcuit
Photoconductive cell used for
controlling a relay and a Schmitt e
The circuit of trigger circuit. Reverse

photoconductive
circuit is illustrated in
a
cell
controlling an
op-amp Schmitt trigger
Electron
letion
urrent

Fig. 18-20(6). When the cell resistance is low

illuminated), the voltage across R, is higher than (cell region
the Schmitt. the
Switches to a high Consequently, the op-amp output is low upper triggerThepoint tor
Figure 18-21 A photodiode has a
reverse-based

(positive) level when Vg falls to the(negative).

point This occurs when the cell
output
Schmitt lower trigger Reverse pn-junction designed
io De light sersibve

resistance Rc to rise. illumination level falls, causing the cell illumination characteristhe
shown in
Lonsider the typical photodiode
Fig. 18-22, and note that the left side of the
characteristics shows revere
Example 18-10 r e v e r s e voltage (g).At an dluminaton
kvef
The current g plotted against 2.2 mA, and atH 20 mw/cm a
Fig.
photoconductive
18-19.
cell in Fig. 18-20(a) has the characteristics shown mw/ cm* g is approximately
sgnihcantiy,
s
-

The relay is to be dos not increuse

when the cell is supplied with 10 mA from the V in A . Increasing
reverse voltage
he
une
illuminated with 30 suppiy Cach characteristic 1s apprOximately a horzuntal
that the
relay coil resistance is approximately Im/m,
200
Assuming
at

the
required series very much smaller than R, and Rc calculate hotoconductive r e g . hs
resistance and the level of the dark
Sofution current
From the
characteristics, at 200 Im/m, Rc1 k2
When the cell is A
illuminated: -23

H+1S mie
R, =-Rc= ; 30V 1 k210 mA H12aWm
2 ka (use 1.8 kQ standard
From the characteristics: value) H 10 W C
When dark, R 100 ks2 H-Smiv cem +0

Dark current: E 3V
0 O 0 102
R+ Re 18 ka+ 100 ka V,(V)
=0.3 mA photocorductive repon and a
proliowo
hve a
charactersics
Finure 18 22 Photodiode
498 Electronic lnotrumentation and Measurements
Chapter 18 Introduction to Transducers 499
Figure 18-23(a) shows a simple photodiode circuit using a 2V reverse Example 18-11
(note the device graphic symbol). Assum1ng that Di has the rse bi
bias
Fig. 18-22, the characteristics
photodiode resistance (Rp1) at each illumination The circuit in ig 18-25 uses a photodiode with the illumination
calculated: level is haracteristics in Fig. 18-22. Draw the de load line, and determine thedio
at 5
mW/ cm, Rp 2V/2.2 mA =909 a
readily currents and voltages at light levels of 12, 15, and 20 mW/cm
at 20 mW/cm,
Rpi =2 V/10 mA =
200 2
The resistance
the changes approximately by tactor of 4.5
high illumination level,
a
from the low
showing that a
photodiode to
photoconductive device. can be used as a
1.5

RI Figure 18-25 Photodiode with

reverse bias and load
Vp resistor.
Solution
When VR0.5 V, Vr1=E-Va= 1.5 V- 0.5 V
= IV
(a) Use ot a reverse bias (6) lhoto-voltaic operation
Figure 18-23 Photodiode with reverse bias
bias voltage, the
photodiode behaves as a
operates as a
photoconductive device. Without a
gR, 220 2
photovoltaic device. = 4.5 mA
Refer again to the
in characteristics Fig. 18-22, and note that when the 1ot point A on the characteristics at g=4.5 mA and Vg 0.5 V
reverse-bias voltage
across the
current continues to flow photodiode is reduced to zerothe reverse
while the diode is When
device is
behaving as a voltage cell, with the n-side
illuminated. This means that the VR =0V, VRi = E =
1.5 V
and the as the negative terminal 1.5 V
p-side the
positive terminal,
illustrated in Fig. 18-2506). So
as R1
photodiode is
photovoltaic device as well as a photoconductive device. The
a
the "RR 220 S2
nght sideof the characteristics shows that, 6.8 mA
when
actually has to be forward biased to reduce the illuminated, the photodiode i o t point B on the characteristics at Ig = 6.8 mA and Ve =0V
reverse current to zero.
Fgure 18-24(a) shows the cross section Draw the dc load line through points A and 8.
of a diffused
heavily doped p-type layer is situated atphotodiode.
that a It is seen
thin,
the top,
exposed to incident light. The
junction depletion region penetrateswhere t 5 From the load line:
into the
lightly doped n-type layer. This is in contact with a lower,
deeply at 12 mW/cm, R - 5 mA, VR04V
doped n-type layer, which connects to a metal film
contact. A
heavily
contact is
provided at the top of the p-type ring-shaped at 15 mW/cm, Ig-6.8mA VR 0V
usually contained in a TO-type can with layer.
Low-current
are
a lens at the
photodiodes at 20 mW/cm, -8.2 mA, Vp+2.8V
AS well as
diodes,
top [Fig. 18-24D) illumination level.
and darlingtons. phototransistors are available in the form ot BJTs, FEIS, Note the diode voltage polarity change
at the highest

Laght Photomultiplier available,

Contae Sio 111 Although many
semiconductor photoelectric devices are currently
it is a n
used, sentally because
SeO the photomultiplier tube is still widely
device. 18-26 1lustrates the principle
type- extremely sensitive and
ultra-tfast Figure
n-type of the photomultiplier
tube. It consists of evacuated glass ylinderan
adatonai elextrodesS known
Figure 18-24 Photodiode containing a photocathode, a n amole,
and several ot the tube,
Darkane a ypica
as dynodes. Note that the a n d e
and cathode are
at
opposite ends to the
(a) Crosssecthon with respeet
o) T0 can-type package Package.
and that the anode is at a very high Ositive voltage
500 Electronic Instrumentotion andMeasurements

cathode. The dynodes are biased to voltage levels distributed between

the
cathode and anode voltages. 100 uim

100 V 500 V
*7O0V
illumination DnoNp Nnoue

(mA)

Cathode
Glass
600 V ylinder
Figure 18-26 Operation ot a
pnotomupler tupe, anode muinaion causes electrons to be
the incident
ynode electrons produce
number of secondary electrone i 2. The process contin
nocte vollage
up to
up to the
the anode
anode with generated at
increased emission generated ynode
at each dynode. Figure 18-27 Typical photomultiplier tube cumentuvotage craractenstcs The dark current
occurs when there is zero cathode iumination The andde current increases with incrnased
Radiation striking the photocathode imparts energy to
electrons within lumination levels.
the cathode surface material, causing them to be
emitted, as illustrated. The
positive voltage on dynode 1 accelerates the
electrons from the cathode Because the light levels shown on the characteristics are measured in
toward the dynode. The
dynode surtace materal facilitates secondary microumens, t 1s obvious that the photomultiplier tube is extremely
emission, and the number ot sensitive. Destructively large currents can tlow it the device
secondary electrons exceeds the number of typical daylight levels with normal voltages applied to the electrondes. The
is
epced to
primary, electrons rom the cathode. Secondary electrons emitted from
dynode 1 are accelerated toward the more positive dynode 2, where further
increased
secondary
Sensitivtandspectral
spectral response are largely dependant on the cathode

of secondary emission continues

emissiorn is
produced. The process
levels ot
increasing material.
well as
The responses available range from 200
being very sensitive,
nm. As nm to 0
between successive dynodes until the photomulbplier tubes
nanoeconds respond in

electrons arrive at the anode, where they are collected. The number to umination changes. FHence they are appmpriate for the detection of very
electrons arriving at the anode far exceeds the fast, low-level occurrences.
number emitted from the
cathode. So, the original electrons have been
multiplied, or in other words
the
photoemission current has been amplified. Current of the amplifications -a0
range of 10 are
possible depending on the number of
dynodes and the Anode
aPplied voltage levels.
The typical photomultiplier tubecharacteristics in Fig. 18-27 show anode
currents ranging approximately
of 25 to 100
from 1 mA to 4 mA for incident light
ieves
IS not

electrode
microlumens. The dark current, which occurs when the
iltuminated, results from thermal emission and the influencecatho
or te
wwwwwww.Www
-2V
a) Photomultipler a r u t
voltages.
The number of electrons
emitted from the cathode is
arecty be Proportional
to the incident illumination
level. So, the anode
current
should expected
to remain constant
for a given illumination
However, the dark current adds to
the current inten
and the produced by illumnau
secondary emission improves with
increased electrode volu8
-Anle

consequently, the anode

current for a
increase slightiy with increased anode given illumination level ten
voltage. (0) Alemative phemuilpuietymb
aphc symbol in this Circut e
ca
I g u r e 18-28 Photormullp cHcut a a s A-2oo v suppy A vollage ow
B Supplied from a - 2 kV source a
a s the dynodes to levels between greurd d 2 *
DoR Electranig Imstrumientotron and INtemsuremet Chepter 18 roheton to Transtes 503

Mechanical
Figure 18-28(a) sheows a c r u t agTam employing a common tres
photomultiplier graphic symbol. Note that the cathode has a high negative ratr tata
voltage supply, and that the dvnote voltaages ire provided by a multi-resistor uve
voltage divider connectext between the cathode and ground. Thus, the
dynodes are at prgressively
higher positive voltage levels moving from the
cathode to the anode. The anode is connected via a resistor to a level more
(a) Crystai wih mechanical strew

positive than ground, and also to the imput ot an amplitier. The use of a Figure 18-29A poz0eecnc
crystal under stress produces a surface vcMage. It also vbrates
negative cathode voltage enables the anode output to be relatively close to when an atornatng vogo s bppied to its surfaces

ground, which is convenient tor connecting to an amplifier input or to

Piezoclectric waters cut from
quartz and other natural materials are
measuring instruments. Another photomultplieT graphic symbol sometimes limited in shape and thus limited in application.
used in eircunt diagrams is shown in Fig 18-28(6).
devices can be 5ynthetc ple t e
arenot suitadie tor
manulactured in almost
any desired shape, and although they
Section Review oscilator stabilization, they can be sifuations
appropriate. The
where quartz crystais
18-5.1 Sketch the typicat ilumination characteristics for stais are
not appropriate.
are not The manutacture of
synthetic
piezoelectric devices involves pr uch as

photocontuctive cell. Explan the photoconductive cell into the required shapes hen eal,
Drum titanate, hieb aures
operation while subected to a
high direct efectric field. The
high
18-5.2
Explain the operation of a photodiode. Sketch typical photodiode structure ot the material into a shape that can proo
voltage aligns the atomic
characteristics and explain their shape shows a
cylinder-shaped svnthetic nieo
18-5.3 Draw a circuit diagram showing a photomultiplier tube with 8ure tUta) device

appropriate supply and bias voltage levels. with electrical contacts plates at on each end. One applic
transducer for listening to sea noi W ce
Pssure
inserted inside, the
Practice Problems cylinder ends are sealed, and the device is
suspended at
the end of cable from
a
long a
The boat or a buoy.
vanations, due topressure
18-5.1 has R, 3.3
Arelay control
E
circuit
such
cell
as
in Fig. 18-20(a) = ka, snp engine noise, tor example, generate electrical signals at the transducer
, and a photoconductive with the characteristicsin Fig.
the ciruit current at luminous intensities of 3 Ix
terminals. These are amplified and fed to the surface for
processing.
S19Calculate
nd 100 I.
A Ceramic device known asabimorp is illustratexd in Fig. 18-30Mb). When
supported at one end, electrical signals are generated at the internal and
18-5.2 A photodiode with the characterstics shown in Fig. 18-22 is external electrodes by vibrations applied to the other end. This type of device
onnected in series with a 3502 resistor and a reverse-biasing is basic to a record player cartridge. The mmute vibrations generated as the

sattery Draw the de load line tor the circuit, and determine
the diode voltage at 20 mW/cm illumination.
stylus moves in a record track are converted into electrical sagnas which are
then amplified and applied to speakers.

18-6 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

a
mechanical stress is applied to a water of
Proprtionat to the stress appears at the surtaces of the crystal Isee Fig:
quartz crystal, a voltage
2a When the stress is removed, the voltage disappears. The crystal
also vibrates, or resonates, when an natural
crstal alternatnE 1O VOtage with the.29(b)1,
sonance trequency of the s surtaces IFig. 18-29(b]1.
O

These
h e s e properties are result fot the F
properties are the restlt ,and all Tatd
crystal structure ot the quat
materials that behave in this
way are termed
piezoclectric. Because stal Bar g h
resonance (a Cylindncal transduser

trequemcy is
extremely stable, piezoelectric crystals are wi
stabilize
gueney ot oscailiators.
cers can be manu
transoUcen
c
cce

transducers.
They are also used in pressu g u r e 18-30
Ceramic piezoelectnc

O he applcation
 teasureent
ar
S04 Eectronic tnstrumentation Chapter 8 Introdiuction to ronsoica 505
As discussed, a piezoelectric transtacer is basically a la

between twO metal

e c a u s e the crystal material a. ystal P
material plates. is
diekectr A 5 mmx4
ulated from mm
the device has acapacitane that ca
relative permittivity (see Fig
rom its dimensions and
e n a torce iS applied to 0.4x 10N/m
crystal, a charge is accumuntea on tne eectrodes. The charg

calculated trom
Eq. 18-17,
V.-8tP=0.04 3 mm04x 10
48 V
=dF
Q8-15) Piezoelectric transducers are generally quite small
Equation 18-15 gives in coulombs when d 15
compared
fore in newtons. An equation for chargecharge transducers. They also tend to be very rugged, and thecpared to other
to other
sensitivity in C/N
can also be
written as eusable over wide temperature range. A
a

mayor
=CTV asurement of force and
pressure variations, in
application is the
where C is the transducer employed tor static measurement. general, they cannot be
capacitance. tne
equation tor
capacitance is
CT,A/t Section Review
where e, is the dielectric relative
permitivity, E 1s the 18-6.1 Explain the piezoelectric effect, and
thickness.permittivity
space, A is the plate area, and f is the dielectric of free discuss how it is applied in a
transducer. Detine
charge sensativity and voltage sensitivity fora
V,C , A/) (18-16)
piezoelectric transducer.

where P is the Practice Problem

pressure (F/A). This gives
18-6.1 A
V,8tP piezoelectric transducer has a
crystal material with a 2 mm
(18-17) thickness and a relative
where is0.045 Vm/N. Calculate the
permittivity of
voltage sensitivity 5. The

The
8=d/E, E) 18-18) the
ransducer charge
sensitivity and
quantity g is the
oltage sensitivity (expressed in
output voltage when the applied pressure is 0.5 x 10 Nim.
constant tor any given transducer. Vm/N), and it is a

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Section 18-1
Ketch
Figure 18-31 0 a
diagram of a
potentiometnic resistave transducer.
Electrodes Piezoelectric transducer in Operates, and
discuss the resolution of the output
Eplain how t
eroelectric ne orm of a wafer of voitage.
pie
Situated between twO
aterial 16 Draw a
diagram to illustrate the operabon ot A resistve wire strain
plated electrodes. Explain its operation. gauge.
Example 18-12 O
SKetch the
construction of a fol strain DtcUss huw it
The gauge. diters rom a
transducer in Fig. 18-31 has wire strain gauge.
crystal plate dimensions of 5 Explain the difference between bonded
The material 3 mm has a
thickness and relative
voltage sensitivity is 0.04 mm. 1he mm x 4 and unbonded
strain gaug
permittivity
a
Dscuss a method of compensating hor temetarure
s a srain auge
Vm/N. ot o
sensitivity, charge, and the output Calculate the transducer charge O Write the
the equation for calculating the resistanx Od iength or wie. kwa sirain
N.
voltage when the e at
apPed IS
gauge, detine gauge factor and Paisson's ratio.

Solution Section 18-2

18-7 Dnw a to illustrate the n s t r u t n
From Eq. 18-18, diagram vanarle euctane
transducer. Explain its operation.
d=,8 800 x 8.84 10x 0.04 15-8 Write the equation for reluctance of
282.9 pC/N
x a
magnetc path, and epain why only the
when cakuatins the cou
thductane in
Eq. 18-15, a gap reluctance is considerd a

Q=d F=282.9 varíable reluctance tranducer.

2.26 nC
pC/N x8N I8-9 Ketch the construction of an LVDI anni is ainut dagram E p a i n LVDT

operatiom.
-10 Sketch a diagram showing LVDT output wa r e n t core
pOsitions. Explain how the output amplitude and p an led
 Chapter 1
oO8 Electronic Instrumentation andMeasurements
voltage terminals
nrbzknn 1o Transducers 507
and eo when the
smallest detectable displacement output is 5.7 V,
Also,
Section 18-3
of n
determine the
18-11 Write the equation for the capacitance ot a parale-plate capcitor, and drTaw
A 2 , 75 cm
gh of
length nickel wire which
illustrations to show how a capaenve uslalcenest transducer 18-2 is bonde to a
steel
steei
operates resistance chang yuwhen the girder is und
has a gauge 1actor or 3, Calculate the change in mpression li
girder has its
Explain. the wite
e length
18-12 Write equations to show the diference between a capacitive transducer that strain vith a gauge tactor of 32
functions by varying the distance e t w e n plates anu one tnat uses variation 18-3
A gauge consists of a 50 cm wire
nd a 300 resistance. when the with a
d complete length of the wire isis
of plate area. Explain.
18-13 Sketch a diagram to illustrate the construction of a capacitive pressure
nositively the resistance
change sheasured
measured as as 066
06S2 Caleculate
change in length and diameter
Wire
neter the
transducer. Esplain its operation and discuss its frequency response. 100
Section 18-4 18-4 A
strain gauge as a /52, cm
length of wire
is 3.5. Calculate the
18-14 Draw a diagram to ilustrate the construction ot a resistance thermometer, gauge factor change in wire
resistance and dameter
er.
Explain its operation, and list its typical temperature range. the wire is stubjected to a 025 mm strain when

18-15 Sketch the circuit diagram ot a resistaee tnermometer connected into a Section 18-2
Se When the total air gap in the coil in a vanable
Wheatstone bridge measurement. Dscuss the error sources due to the
for
connecting lead resistances, and show how the errors are minimized. coil inductance
reluctance
1s U.5 mi. Determine
transducer is09 mm
the ar
gap change when the
18-16 Describea and inductance becomes 0.44 mH.
thermistor, sketchn typical thermmistor temperature characteristics An 11
Write the equaion that relates
reststances atemperatures 1 and T, to the 18-6 mm
displacement an LvD or core
produces a 35 mV output voltage
resistance/ temperature constant B. Explain. Calculate the output
when the
displacement is 15 mm.
18-17 Sketch an op-amp circuit that uses a thermistor to produce an output voltage When its total air U.33 mm,
1-7 gap 1s à vanable reluctance transducer has
proportional to temperature. Explain. 0.35 mH inductance Ihe inductance decreases
18-18 Discuss the use ot a thermocouple as a thermometer. state its
to 0.3 mH when the
target is
typical moved further trom the core. Calculate the
target movement
temperature range. 18-8 A variable reluctance transducer has a 10 m
inductance when its air gaps
18-19 Describe a semiconductor temperature sensor, and draw a ircuit that 1 mm. Determine its inductances when the air
maintains a constant current through the device. Discuss its typical temperature
gap is increased to 2 mm, 3 mm,
and 4mm.

range 18-9 The output of an LVDI is amplified by a factor of 100 and applied teo a metert
Section 18-5
18-20 Sketch the typical construction and ilumination characteristics for a The sensitivity of the LVDI is 037 V/mm, and the meter can indwate
minimum of 10 mv. Determine the overall sensitvity of the system, and the
photoconductive cell. Explain its operation. minimum oore displacement that will be indicated on the meter.
18-21 Draw circuit diagrams to show a photoconductive cell applied for (a) energizing 18-10 produces of 5 V
a relay when illuminated, (6) triggering an op-amp Schmitt trigger circuit An LVDT
its zero
an
output when the core displacement
Calculate the core when the
is 0 m
18-22 Sketch the cross section of a typical photodiode and explain its operation.
from position. displacement ourput
2.5 V
Sketch typical photodiode characteristics and discuss their shape.
Section 18-3
18-23
Drawa sketch to show how a photomultipler tube operates, Explain
18-24 Sketch and
10-1Aparallel-plate capacitive transducer has
a oiS mm pate ares, and 1.5
mm

explain typical photomultiplier tube characteristics.

18-25 Draw a cireuit diagram involving a photomultiplier tube. Show typical voltage pacing between plates. Calculate the capaatance, and the pae spacng
displacement that causes the capacitance to change oy p r
levels.
18-26 Fora photomultiplier tube, define the following: photocathode, anode, dynode, capacitive
transducer hasa 15 pF capaitance when i plite spaang s 0s
secondary emission, dark current. o..n. Calculate the change in plate spucng that prudus 21 p chang
013 A capacitive transducer is made up of a stack ol hve plats arang with
Section 18-6 mm
gaps
in between them. The plate dinmensas
18-27 Describe the piezoelectric effeet, and explain the operation of quartz crystal whuke e P
mm), and they are arranged to s ue laterally a
in
and synthetic piezoelectric transducers. lotal capcitance
and
ie semabviy
constant.
Calculate the
remains
18-28 Define charge sensitivity and voltage sensitivity for a piezoelectric transducer.
parallel pla
Derive the eguation for the transducer output voltage pF/mm. tructed ot
hwo.min
0min

A Capacitive transducer iS e. The dieletne tnk ans

15-29 Dscuss the applications and limitations of piezoelectric transducers. the
separated by solid dielectric, as t h e transducer capacitane when
1s
3. hall way
PROBLEMS nd
its relative

IS
permittivity
completely
inserted
between

the
he a
a p u a u n r c n a n g e
when the dielectre

Eic calculhle
Also,
the plates.
Section 18-1 Om

, the p l a s
out Irom
A 10cm, 10 is at 1: mm
18-1 kN linear
potentiometer has 5000 turns and a 15V supply.
the output voltage resolution, and determine the resistance between the outp
Calculate
 Chapter 1 vtrheton
eathemets

tn
Trsocerss0
B0
BOB lectrene Instruett
ACTICE PROBLEM ANSWERS
Section 184
has a l002 nsistane and a temvsa
18-15 Ansistane t h e r m e t e r 10"
e 10 , B4 m

of 037at 20C
Cakulate its resistance at
75 C, and detemine i 66

h e n its nslane
s nperature 18-2.1 012 mm
0 pmn
A nesistane thermomefer measures 120 9 at 20°C and its 25 Vmm,
18-16
w f t i e n t is 0 b C alkulate the t h e m n e t e r nsistance at 30yc
temperat 1#-2.2
I43.1 0 0 p / d e g r e e
and ' C . Alo cakulate the nesistane change AR) betwee I4.1 1087C

18-17 Fr the k2 thermistor n Tane

calulate the
temperature when I84.2 11.15 ka1.9 mA
sistance is r v n t to 20 K2 the uA,
I8-5.1 164
18-18 Caleculate the output voltage rom the cinuit in Fig. 18-15 at 25°C 18-5.2 +0.19V
and 28C i
the 30 A
thermistor
thermistor
with
in Table 18-2 is

1 Ki2 nsistanoe at 25C has

used.
p specified
12pC/N,45
15-6.12
18-19 A a
as 3395
the thermistor rsistance at >C and at s9 C temperatures. Calculate
18-20 The 30N thermistor in Table 182 1s connected in series with a 1.5 k
resistor
R,) and a 12 V supply. Determne h e vonage arop across R, at
of 22 C, 2*C, and s1C.
temperatu
18-21 The LMI35 in the
ciuitshown in Fig 18-16c) has a 2.98 V output when h
temperature is 20'C. Caiculate the ouput votges at
temperatures of 30'C,
40C, and S0'C.

Section 18-5
18-22 The Schmitt trigger cireuit in Fg. has Vcc 12 V, and
18-206)characteristics UTP/LTP =
5 V. The photoconductive cell has the in Fig. 18-19, and the
Schmitt output is to switch
negatvey wnen the uumination level exceeds
30 lx. Calculate a suitable R, resistance tor and estimate the light level that
causes the Schmitt output to switch positively.
18-23 A cell with in Fig.
photoconductive
series with an 820 2 resistor and a 12
the characteristics 18-19 is connectedin
supply. Determine the cellllumination
level when the circuit current is approximately 6.5 mA, and when it is
1.1 mA.
18-24 Aphotodiode with the characteristics shown in Fig. 18-22 is connected in series
with a 1 V reverse-biasing supply. The is to produce 0.2
diode Vacross is
terminals when illuminated with 20 mW/cm*. Calculate the required seres
and current at 15 mW/cm*
esistance value, and determine the diode voltage
1umination level.

18-25 Two photodiodes in series with 100 Qresistors are connected to a 0.5 Vrevere
biasing supply A voltmeter is connected to measure the voltage diliern
betwen the diode cathodes. Assuming that each diode has the characters
snown n Fg 1822, determine the voltmeter reading when the 1numanauo
level is 10 mW/cm* on one diode and 15
mW/cm on the other.
Section 18-6
18-26
Apiezoelectrictransducer has plate dimensions of 2 mm
e c i c thickness. 1he crystal material has a relative permittivity o 0
x2 mm and a
the transducer charge sensitivity is 3 pC/N. Calculale the transo ue
and the output voltage when 6 N force
18-27 Calculate
a
is appied.
the lorce required to
produce a 100 V oulpu
transducer that has 0.05 Vm/N voltage sensitivity, a plate dmensiuns
e
5 mm x
5mm, and a dielectric thickness
18-28 Calculate the
of 2 mm. cUn

charge on the transducer in Problem 18-27 if the ple

material has a relative
permitivity of S00.