cherotichemmanuel22@gmail.

com

Tell 0776320389/0768722054
OBJECTIVES OF THIS INTRODUCTORY ASPECT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY

​ To provide a conceptual framework of the course

​ To prepare the trainees undertake critical livestock production activities

especially in poultry production.

​ Enable trainees undertake comprehensive cost-benefit.

EXPECTED OUTCOMES/BENEFITS OF THE INTRODUCTORY ASPECT OF

TRAINING

​ Trainees will be able to set up their poultry farms and adequately operate on

benefit basis

​ Trainees will be capable of selecting specific breeds of chickens for specific

production environments

​ Trainees will be able to identify poultry diseases and develop disease

prevention mechanisms.
 Table of Contents

Unit 1​ POULTRY PRODUCTION AND CHICKEN VALUE CHAIN​ -​ - 5​

1.1​ Introduction to Intensive Poultry (Chicken) Farming​ -​ -​ -​ - 5​
1.2​ Understanding the Concept of Intensive Poultry (Chicken) Management​ -​ - 5​
1.3​ Factors to Consider in Establishing a Chicken Farm​ -​ -​ -​ - 6​
1.4​ Distribution and Market Linkages of Poultry Products​ -​ -​ -​ - 7​
1.4.1​ Market Segmentation​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 7​
1.4.2​ Steps to Successful Livestock (Chicken) Marketing​ -​ -​ -​ - 8​
1.4.3​ Available Poultry Markets in Sierra Leone​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 8​
1.5​ Challenges of Chicken Farming in Sierra Leone​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 9​
Unit 2​ Poultry Production Systems​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 10​
2.1​ Deep Litter and Battery Cage Systems​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 10​
2.2​ Intensive Poultry Production System Using Exotic Chicken Breeds​ -​ - 11​
2.2.1​ Deep Litter System​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 11​
2.2.2​ Battery Cage System​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 13
2.3​ Broiler Production​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 13
2.3.1​ Selection of Tropicalized Broiler Breeds​-​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 13
2.3.2​ Preparation of Poultry House Before Arrival of Broiler Day-old chicks​ -​ - 13
2.3.3​ Broiler Day-old Chicks Management After Arrival​ -​ -​ -​ - 14
2.3.4​ Brooding​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 14
2.4​ Layer Chickens Production​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 15
Unit 3​ Nutrition and Feeding of Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 17
3.1​ Nutrition of Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 17
3.2​ Animal Feed Formulation​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 17
3.3​ Feeding of Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 17
3.3.1​ Feeding Broiler Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 18
3.3.2​ Feeding Layer Chickens​-​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 19
3.4​ Identification of Laying hens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 20
3.4.1​ Characteristics of a Hen in Laying​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 21
3.4.2​ Characteristics of a Hen not in Laying​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 22
3.4.3​ Reasons Hens Stop Laying​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 22
Unit 4​ Animal Health and Biosecurity​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 24
4.1​ Animal Health​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 24
4.1.1​ Vaccination​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ ​ -​ - 24
4.1.2​ Biosecurity Measures​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 24
4.2​ Poultry Diseases and their Symptoms​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 25
Unit 5​ Farm Record Keeping and Cost-Benefit Analysis​ -​ -​ -​ - 28
5.1​ Farm Record Keeping​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 28
5.2​ Reasons for Keeping Farm Records​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 28
5.3​ Types of Poultry Farm Records​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 29
5.4​ Evaluation and Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Performance of the Poultry Farm​ - 29
Unit 6​ Improvement of the Indigenous Local Chicken​ -​ -​ -​ - 34
6.1​ The Indigenous Local Chicken​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 34
6.2​ Characteristics of the Local Village Chicken​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 34
6.3​ Uses of Local Chickens​-​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 34
6.4​ Improvements of Local Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 34
6.5​ Genetic Upgrading of Local Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 35
6.6​ General Guidelines​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 35​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 ​Floor, Feeder and Waterer Space Requirement for Broilers and Layers​ - 15​
Table 2​​ Feeding Timetable for Broiler Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 18
Table 3​​ Expected Weight Gains (kg), Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) and Feed
​ ​ Consumed by Birds​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 19
Table 4​​ Expected Egg Laying Capacities of Layer Chickens​ -​ -​ - 19
Table 5​​ Feeding Regime for Layer Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 20
Table 6​​ Vaccination Schedule for Broiler Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ - 24
Table 7​​ Vaccination Schedule for Layer Chickens​ -​ -​ -​ - 25
Table 8​​ Hypothetical Cost-Benefit Analysis for 500 Layer Chickens​ -​ - 31

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1​ Local Commercial Chicken Value Chain​​ -​ -​ -​ - 5
Figure 2​ International Commercial Chicken Value Chain​ -​ -​ -​ - 6
Figure 3​ Extensive Local Poultry Production System​ -​ -​ -​ - 10
Figure 4​ Semi-Intensive Local Chicken Production System​ -​ -​ - 11
Figure 5​ Semi-Intensive with a Run Chicken Production System​ -​ -​ - 11
Figure 6a​ Intensive Battery Cage Production System​ -​ -​ -​ - 13
Figure 6b​ Intensive Battery Cage Production System​ -​ -​ -​ - 13
Figure 7​ Typical Day-old Chicks Brooding System Layout​ -​ -​ - 15
Figure 8​ Three Fingers Test to Determine Productive Layers​ -​ -​ - 21
Figure 9​ Illustration of the Three Finger Test for Productive Layers​ -​ - 21
Figure 10​ Submissive Squat Posture of a Good Layer Chicken​ -​ -​ - 21
Figure 11​ Birds Showing Signs of​Newcastle Disease​ -​ -​ -​ - 25
Figure 12​ Birds Showing Signs of Fowl Pox​ -​ -​ -​ -​ - 26
Figure 13​ Birds Showing Signs of Infectious Laryngotracheitis Disease​ -​ - 26
Figure 14​ Birds Showing Signs of Bacillary White Diarrhea (Pullorum Disease)​ - 26
Figure 15​ Birds Showing Signs of Avian Infectious Bronchitis​ -​ -​ - 27
 Unit One
POULTRY PRODUCTION AND CHICKEN VALUE CHAIN

1.​ Introduction to Intensive Poultry (Chicken) Farming

1.1​ Understanding the Concept of Intensive Poultry (Chicken) Management

Poultry farming is very common in Sierra Leone and Local chickens are the most dominant which
are widely distributed in the country. Local chickens are extensively reared and subjected to a
self-supporting management system. Unlike Local chickens, intensive chicken production system
use exotic breeds of chicken that have been bred for a particular production objective such as meat
or egg production

Under the intensive management system, which can take different arrangements, chickens are
provided with all the resources (feed, water, improved health facilities and protection from
inclement weather) and support under a conducive environment for them to perform well. This
requires personnel with the right skills and competence to manage chickens under the intensive
management system.

1.2​ Chicken Value Chains

Value chain activities bring products from its conception to its end user and include production,
marketing and distribution which may be confined to a single geographical location or spread over
a large area. Value Chain analysis is essential to understand the production system, marketing
channels and their relationships, the participation of different actors, and the critical constraints that
limit the growth of poultry production and consequently the competitiveness of smallholder
farmers.
Figure 1 Local Commercial Chicken Value Chain

Figure 2 International Commercial Chicken Value Chain

1.3​ Factors to Consider in Establishing a Chicken Farm

So many people have gone into chicken production without doing a thorough understanding of
what is required and how the entire business operates. Feeding alone can account between 60 to 70
per cent total cost of production. In rural areas where processing and storage facilities are lacking,
delay in marketing of live birds will eat into the profit. It is therefore prudent to do a thorough
research on the setting and operations of a chicken production farm. The initial capital to establish a
chicken farm is huge so ensure you have enough finances to do so.

●​ Market demand - study the market and know where you can make significant profits. This
keeps changing.
●​ A suitable piece of land which should be well drained

●​ Feeds: sources, quality and access - the quality of your feeds will always affect your
production. Study feeding guides to understand what to give the birds at each stage as they
grow.
●​ Water: sources, quality and access - birds require plenty of clean water at all times. Do not give
them dirty water.
●​ Production system to adopt - Will you produce and hatch your own eggs? Will you make your
own feeds?

●​ A good Manager who understands the system and is capable of reacting swiftly to emergencies

●​ Housing - Do not overcrowd your birds in a tiny structure. Start with a manageable number and
expand over time. Also, consider aspects such as lighting since too much light and poorly lit
structure are not recommended.

●​ Health care and veterinary assistance - this will help you overcome the threat of diseases.
Ensure proper vaccination.

●​ Poultry breeds - identify a breed that is good for the production model you have identified.
Various breeds have different strengths and weaknesses.

●​ Credit and access to credit - financial support can be a boost. For example, getting an incubator
can be a challenge. As such, access to a credit facility you can be comfortable with will boost
your business.

●​ Costs and potential profits - always know how much everything costs and keep records.
Minimize on expenses and go for your maximum profit capability.

1.4​ Distribution and Market Linkages of Poultry Products

Markets include mechanisms or means for determining price of the traded item (Live chickens,
Dressed chickens, Eggs, etc.), communicating the price information, facilitating deals and
transactions, and effecting distribution. The market for a particular item is made up of existing and
potential customers who need it and have the ability and willingness to pay for it.

1.4.1​ Market Segmentations

1). Local Market at Village Level

Local markets are essentially markets in close proximity to the village or production farms.
Demand for local markets depends on the availability of products. The purchasing power of
consumers, as well as the number of sellers, is limiting factors due to lower population density.
Some of the collectors who will be trading in townships or wholesale markets come to the Local
market on a regular basis.

2). Township Market Level

Township markets are larger markets situated in towns and urban centers, with variegated supply
and demand linkages. The number of operators, though limited, is higher than local markets. These
markets normally cater to a larger geographic location, and the volume of trade is high with more
buyers as compared to the local market.

3). Wholesale Market

The wholesale market has a different set of norms and practices as compared to township and local
markets. Quality is the highest concern in this market, compared to other market segments, and
price awareness and competition are very high.

4). International markets

These are highly sophisticated markets with strict criteria of processing, packaging and delivery.
Products have to meet international standards including lack of disease agents, residues, etc.

1.4.2​ Steps to Successful Livestock (Chicken) Marketing

1. Estimate costs​
The first step involves accurately estimating costs of production and cash flow needs. This step is
listed first because it is vitally import. Even though figuring costs and cash flow needs can be done
at any time, it really is best to complete this step as early as possible.

2. Gather market information, including market outlook

Following market trends and projected livestock prices helps a livestock producer decide what to
produce in order to bring the greatest return.

3. Know your product

The quality and type of livestock for sale must be assessed before a producer can seriously evaluate
the various pricing and delivery alternatives.

4. Set several target prices

Setting target prices is a big help in making livestock marketing decisions. However, a livestock
producer can only set target prices by knowing actual or accurately estimated production costs. A
marketer must also know what the market is paying, or is expected to pay.

5. Evaluate pricing and delivery alternatives

Producers should evaluate all available alternatives for pricing and delivering their livestock. Each
alternative has specific features that may make it more suitable than another in certain
circumstances.

1.4.3​ Available Poultry Markets in Sierra Leone

a). Local markets

i. Unconventional markets (street, village, at household level, etc)

ii. Conventional markets
a). Public markets in towns
b). Super markets
c). Restaurants
b). International markets
This market is sophisticated and dictated by the consumer’s standards. Products are processed and
packed in specialized units (e.g. chicken feet, wings, legs, graded eggs, powdered eggs, etc). Sierra
Leone is yet to exploit this market.

1.5​ Challenges of Chicken farming in Sierra Leone

Poultry production is a lucrative business in Sierra Leone but is challenged by several factors.​

∙ Lack of management skills for local chickens​

∙ High mortality due to poor animal health care in remote areas​

∙ Poorly organized market channels​

∙ Poorly organized technology transfers​

∙ The low availability of technical personnel​

∙ Poor farmers’ commodity groups​

∙ High input cost

Unit Two

2. ​ POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

2.1​ Deep Litter and Battery Cage System

Poultry production especially chicken production is done under different production systems, which is
influenced by the available resources and the local climatic conditions. The principles of these production
systems will be briefly introduced and much emphasis will be laced on the Deep Litter which is mostly
appropriate for small holder poultry farmers.
1.​ Intensive production system – This is further divided into:
a). Deep litter system – birds are kept on inert litter material evenly spread on the floor to absorb moisture
from bird feces and water spillage.
b). Battery Cage system – birds are kept on separate compartments or cages where their movements are
restricted but food and water is provided as necessary.
2.​ Extensive production system – This is further divided into:
a). Scavenging system – mostly involved Local chickens that are left on a fully self-supporting system
deriving food and water from every source where possible.
Figure 3 Extensive Local Poultry Production System
b). Semi-scavenging – mostly involve Local chickens who are provided with a day-start ration such as
kitchen leftovers, grains and locally produced feeds. They fend for themselves for the remaining hours of the
day scavenging around

Figure 4 Semi-Intensive Local Chicken Production System

a). Intensive with a run system – Birds are kept in houses provided with a run which gives them access to
sunlight and the soil. They are also provided with feed and water.
Figure 5 Semi-Intensive with a Run System

2.2​ Intensive Poultry Production System using Exotic Chicken Breeds on Deep litter and Battery
Cage System

2.2.1​ Deep litter System

The Deep Litter System is the most appropriate system used by many smallholder poultry farmers. The initial
cost is cheap because local materials can be used for the purpose of production. Litter materials used range
from rice husks, wood shavings, rice straws, etc. Drinkers and feeders can me fabricated using local materials
such as bamboo stems.
2.2.2​ Battery Cage System
The Battery Cage allows for birds to be kept in separate compartments where all necessary facilities including
water, feeds, medicines and all other facilities are provided. This will enable the farmer to note the
performance of each bird. Sick birds, unproductive ones and others with vice habits can easily be identified
and culled as necessary.
Advantage of the Battery Cage System in Poultry Farming​
Poultry battery cages are housing systems which are mostly made up of small cages to fit an
individual bird used for chicken rearing and suitable for keeping diverse species. In the modern-day
chicken rearing, battery systems have certain beneficial impact on poultry farming in several ways
which are listed below:
1. Battery Cages Boosts the Health of the Chickens​
Battery cages are very good means of accommodating your chickens in healthy conditions that will
boost their reproduction. The wire floor is designed to allow manure go through it, taking it away
from the chickens surroundings and eventually minimizing the risks of manure-borne diseases. This
will keep the chickens health.
2. Increases Egg Production​
A chicken that is healthy will significantly become more productive than chickens reared in
environments that do not boost their health. Enriched battery cages increase the potential of egg
production in chickens.​
It is more advisable to use battery cages to aid egg production.
3. Qualitative Feeding for the Chickens​
The battery cage system makes feeding for chickens a habitual process which implies more care for
the chickens. This is because the chickens are fed through a long bisected metal or plastic pipe and
water is served to them with overhead nipple systems which are set before the chickens. This makes
it easy for the poultry farmer to care for the chickens with frequent and adequate food and water.
4. Low Cost of Labor​
Battery cage reduces labor by the poultry farmer. This is because the chickens are well-organized
and conducted to be in rows with several facilities for their feeding, carriers of their feces droppings
adequately positioned and the eggs rolling to the appropriate places in designed the battery cages.
Everything is well organized. This reduces stress for the farmer and the need to employ many
workers for poultry farms will be minimized.
5. Poultry Battery Cages Have Feeders that Minimize Feed Spillage​
Battery cages make it easy for poultry farmers to care adequately for their chickens. Despite this
dire need to take care of the chickens, battery cages help the poultry farmer to minimize feed
spillage when feeding chickens.
6. High Capacity for Accommodation​
Modern battery cages have high capacity to accommodate a larger number of chickens within a
limited space. That means, battery cages will save you cost in construction and help you maximize
the use of whatever space you have available.
7. Affordable, Durable and Suitable For All Egg-Laying Chicken Types​
Poultry battery cages are quite affordable for beginners and experienced poultry farmers who need
to give this method of rearing chickens a trial. It costs less and is more effective and efficient.
Besides being affordable, poultry battery cages are durable because they have wire mesh made of
galvanized iron which keeps them from rusting and makes them last for a lengthy period of time.
 Figure 6a Intensive Battery Cages Production System

Figure 6b Intensive Battery cage System for Layers

2.3​ Broiler (Table Meat) Production
2.3.1​ Selection of Tropicalized Broiler Breeds
Broiler and Layer chicken production in the tropics is challenged by local climatic conditions and this has to
be considered when selecting breeds for production. Several commercial breeds are available in the market
but it is wise to select those that are successfully produced in your area. The following breeds are commonly
reared in West Africa:
●​ White Rock
●​ Rhode Island Red
 ●​ Anak 2000
●​ Hy-Bro
●​ Krishibro
Broilers are chickens produced for meat. There are several preparations the farmers must make before and
after arrival and during the growing and performance period. The following preparations are necessary:
2.3.2​ Preparation of Poultry House Before Arrival of Broiler Day-old chicks

​ Thoroughly, cleaned and disinfected in the shed, the surroundings and all the equipment

before the arrival of the masses of chickens.

​ Spread of 8–10 cm of dry and non-clay waste material such as sawdust etc.

​ Start the brooders one hour before the chicks arrive to maintain the correct temperature in

the hen house.

​ For best results, the chicks should be brought to the farm as soon as possible, and fed

promptly.
2.3.3​ Broiler Day-old-chick Management After Arrival

​ The chicks should be removed from the box immediately. The longer they stay in the

boxes, the greater the chance of losing weight. This will lead to death and slow growth.

​ During the first seven days, give 23 hours of light to help the chicks adjust to their new

environment and encourage self-feeding.

​ Feed the birds as soon as they arrive on the farm, and add vitamins to the water as soon as

possible.

​ Arrange drinkers and feeders so that the chicks have easy access to feed and water.

2.3.4​ Brooding
Brooding entails replacing the responsibilities of mother hen for her chicks by providing heat, food
and protection. The following actions are necessary for brooding:
a). Heating

​ Start brooder 24 hours before the birds arrive

​ Adjust temperature of source of heat to 95◦F at first week and reduce it by 5° F every week until

70°F
 ​ Place brooder for first week to prevent birds straying from source of heat

Figure 7 Typical Day-old-Chicks Brooding System Layout

b). Ventilation
Allow adequate free ventilation to avoid methane gas accumulation. This is achieved by placing
wire meshes at both sides of the building.
c). Lighting
Provide continuous light both day and night
d). Floor Space requirement
Provide 0.8 to 1 Ft Square per bird
e). Provide the following feeds ad libitum (Excess at all times)

Table 1 Floor, Feeder and Water Space Required per Birds

 Age Floor Space per Feeder Space per Waterer Space
Bird Bird per Bird

Up to 18 days 450 cm2 3 cm 1.5 cm

19 to 42 days 1000 cm2 6-7 cm 3 cm

2.4​ Layers Chickens (Eggs) Production

Layers, at the initial stage, are cared much the same as broilers. However, they stay a longer time in
the poultry house until between 18 to 20 weeks when they start laying eggs. We shall emphasize on
the post brooding management and proceed to the point of pal (p.o.l) and finally up to end of lay
(e.o.l). Chickens are called long-season breeders, meaning that they come into production as days
become longer. That is, they start producing eggs when there are more hours of light per day. All
chicken hens lay eggs, but some will lay more than others. A good laying hen should give you 280+
eggs per year.
 Unit Three
3​ Nutrition and Feeding of Chickens
3.1​ Nutrition of Chickens
Chickens especially those under intensive management require a nutritious well-balanced diet. It is
better to explore local resources like corn, fish meal, fish scraps, oyster shells and other available
materials like cassava and potato to prepare feed for chickens. Animal nutrition is delicate and will
affect the performance of the birds is not carefully considered.
3.2​ Animal Feed Formulation
Feed formulation for poultry is a technical activity that requires adequate training and experience.
There are lots of techniques available for feed formulation but we shall restrict this training to the
Person Square method of feed formulation. Suppose you want to formulate 100 kg of feeds for
layers that should contain 16% crude protein (CP). The local feeds available are corn (8.9% CP)
and commercial supplements (36% CP).
We can use Person Square method as follows:

Corn, 8.9% 20 parts corn

Commercial Supplements 36% 7.1 parts supplement

27.1 total
Total parts of each feed can be expressed as a percentage of the total.
20
Corn​ = 27.1
x 100 = 73.8%
 7.1
Supplements = 27.1
x 100 = 26.2

This method can only be used for two types of animal feeds. In the above example, we can now
mix 73.8 kg of corn with 26.2 kg of supplements. This will provide a total of 16% proteins in the
animal feds formulated. It can also be done for three or more feeds simultaneously but requires
experience to do so. However, modern technology has made it possible for the development of
softwares which can do all the necessary calculations.

3.3​ Feeding of Chickens

Every poultry producer, whether broilers or layers, will agree with me that feeding accounts
between 60% to 80% cost of production. Therefore, poultry feeds should be carefully selected and
compounded to meet specific production objectives such as meat or egg production. We should also
bear in mind that exotic (foreign) breeds are genetically selected and highly specialized for a
particular production goal. They will only perform better if they are provided with the right type of
feeds and environment. The type of feed and presentation method will also have a greater impact on
your flock performance. Three types of feeding are adopted by farmers depending on the
production objective:
i.​ Restricted feeding – Chickens are provided with adequate feed either once or twice a day at
specific time intervals
ii.​ Appetite feeding – Chickens may be fed depending on their appetite for feed. If the feeds are
finished before the expected time, more feeds are provided in subsequent feeding to satisfy the
birds appetite
iii.​ Ad libitum feeding – In this system, birds are provided with excess feeds at all times.
3.3.1​ Feeding Broilers
Broilers should be fed ab libitum (excess food is provided at all times). Three types of feeds are
normally fed to broilers:
i.​ Pre- Starter mash – These are highly palatable feeds that will encourage the birds to
start feeding. They contain mostly proteins and energy feeds.
ii.​ Starter mash – These are feeds that initiate rapid growth. They may contain some
pre-mixes that may encourage fast growth
iii.​ Grower mash – These are the last types of feeds broilers will thrive on until market
weight. These feeds are carefully compounded to enable birds grow faster and
healthier.
In all three types of feeds provided for broilers, they are fed ad libitum.
Table 2 Feeding Timetable for Broiler Chickens

Age Type of feed required

 0-10 days Pre-starter mash

11 to 21 days Starter mash

22 days till marketing Finisher mash

The expected weight gains (Kg), Feed Conversion Ratios (FCR) and feeds consumed over a period
of time is shown in Table 3. The FCR is a very important parameter that will indicate whether the
production system is good or not compared with standard production parameters. The “Rule of
thumb” is the higher the FCR the poor the production system is and the lower the FCR the better
the production system. Always try to maintain a low FCR!
Table 3 Expected Weight Gains (kg), Feed Conversion Ration (FCR) and Feeds Consumed by Birds

Age Weight FCR Consumption

4 weeks 750 g 1.4 1.050 kg

6 weeks 1,200 g 1.8 2.160 kg

7 weeks 1,500 g 2.0 3.000 kg

8 weeks 1,800 g 2.1 3.780 kg

9 weeks 1,950 g 2.2 4.290 kg

The FCR can be determined using the following formula:

FCR = FC/WG

Where FCR ​ = Feed Conversion Ratio

​ FC​ = Feed Consumed over a period of time​
​ WG​ = Weight gained over the same period of time

Table 4 Expected Egg Laying Capabilities of Layer Chickens

Level Eggs/hen/year laying %

Excellent 300 90

Very good 280 85

Good 260 80

Average 250 75
3.3.2​ Feeding Layer chickens

To get the best tasting eggs, it’s logical that you have to put good food in first. This is why it’s
important to start with a nutrient-dense feed from the very beginning. And when it comes to the
‘right’ feed, it’s not one-chicken-fits-all. As chicks, their feed should contain complete proteins,
amino acids, vitamins and minerals to set up a good foundation of overall health and promote
growth. A good example of this type of complete, balanced feed is “Chick Starter”.

As the chicks age into pullets after 8 weeks it’s time to switch to grower feed, which has lower
protein and calcium but added Omega-3s and nutrients to bolster healthy development and get
chickens primed for laying. For this stage we recommend “Pullet Developer”.

Finally around 18–20 weeks we reached the ‘layer stage’, this is the time to transition to layer
feed-easy to remember-which contains higher levels of calcium and protein found in “Poultry Layer
Crumble”. This nutrient combination leads to healthier eggs, digestive systems and boosted
immunities.

Table 5 Feeding Regime for Layer Chickens

Age Type of feed Required

0-8 weeks Chick Starter mash

8 weeks to first lay (18-20 weeks) Pullet Developer mash

21 weeks till marketing Layer mash

3.4​ Identification of Laying Hens

To determine which of your hens are laying, it is important to know more about the type of hens
you have. For many breeds, hens that are laying eggs have large, bright red combs and wattles. For
other breeds, the combs and wattles are normal color during the laying period but fade after the
laying period.
i. De-pigmentation

For hens with yellow pigment in the skin, such as Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth Rocks, the
level of pigmentation is a good indication of where the hens are in the production cycle. Hens lose
the yellow pigment in a specific order. The color fades first from the vent; then the face (beak, eye
ring, and earlobe); and then the feet (shanks, toes, and hock). An additional method for identifying
laying hens involves evaluating the level of fat in the abdomen and the abdominal capacity as
measured by the distances between the pubic bones (abdominal width) and between the pubic bones
and the tip of the keel, or breastbone (abdominal depth). The lower the level of fat and the larger the
abdominal capacity, the more likely the hen is to be laying.
ii. Three-Finger Test

Hens have pelvic bones that stick out near their vent, feel their back sides and you will feel them. If
the vent can accommodate three fingers, then they are laying otherwise one or two fingers in the
vent indicate poor layers.
1. Pick up your Hen and hold firmly under your arm (use a towel to wrap the wings if needs be).
2. Turn the Hen around so their back end is facing away from you.
3. DO NOT tip the Hen upside down.
4. Gently feel near the vent for two bones (these are called the pelvic bones).
5. Place 1 or 2 or 3 fingers between these pelvic bones.

Figure 8 Three Finger Test Determine Productive Layers

As the 1st diagram shows (open pelvic bones) = LAYER (3 fingers).

As the 2nd diagram shows (closed pelvic bones) = NONE LAYER (1 or 2 fingers).

Good Layer Poor Layers

 Figure 9 Illustration of Three Fingers Test for Productive Layers
iv.​ Submissive Squat
When your Hen does this submissive squat, this is readying for the Cockerel or Drake for
mating, again your Hen or Duck is more likely to be laying when they do this.

Figure 10 Submissive Squat Showing a Good Layer

3.4.1​ Characteristics of a Hen in Laying

1. Soft, enlarged comb and wattles
2. Wide, moist vent.
3. Increased distance between the pelvic bones
4. Increased distance between pelvic arch and keel
5. Velvety skin
6. Soft, pliable, enlarged abdomen
3.4.2​ Characteristics of a Hen out of Laying
1. Short, hard, shriveled comb and wattles
2. Small, puckered, and dry vent
3. Little distance between the pelvic bones
4. Short distance between pelvic arch and keel
5. Tight, coarse skin
6. Firm abdomen
3.4.3​ Reasons Hens Stop Laying
Many factors can affect egg production, with health (before and after lay) being one of the most
significant. If your hens stop laying, you may be able to identify the source of the problem by
asking the following questions:

●​ Have the hens been laying for 10 months or more? Your hens may just be at the end of their
laying cycle. If so, they will stop production, go through a molt (loss of feathers), take a break, and
start laying again. If your hens have been laying for less than 10 months, something else may be
causing their lack of production.
●​ Are the hens receiving enough fresh, clean water? The hens will not eat if they cannot drink, so
make sure that your watering system is functioning correctly. Keeping a watering system
 operational can be a challenge in the winter when the water may freeze. You can purchase waterers
that have heaters attached to keep the water from freezing. Otherwise, you will have to break up
any frozen water on a regular basis. Problems can occur in summer as well. Summertime high
temperatures can make the water so warm that the chickens will not drink enough to meet their
increased needs. For more information, refer to the related article on the water requirements of
poultry.
●​ Are the hens eating enough of the right feed? Feeding the wrong feed, diluting feed with scratch
grains, or limiting the amount of feed available can result in your hens having a nutritional
deficiency, causing them to molt and go out of production. When hens have a nutritional deficiency,
it is common to see feather pecking as well as a loss of egg production.
●​ Are the hens getting enough hours of light per day? Decreases in the number of hours of
light per day typically will put a flock out of production. For this reason, many flocks that are not
provided with supplemental light go out of production during the fall and winter months.
●​ Do the hens have parasites? Various internal parasites and external parasites can infest
poultry flocks and stress the hens. Heavy infestations of internal parasites can result in serious
damage to the digestive tract and reduce hen performance.
●​ Did any issues with eggshell quality precede the stop in egg
production? Several diseases can result in abnormal eggshells.
●​ Have there been any health issues within the flock? A flock that has been sick will not
perform as well as a flock that has not gone through a disease challenge.
 Unit Four
ANIMAL HEALTH AND BIOSECURITY MEASURES
4.1​ Animal Health

In all efforts to develop and maintain a healthy animals should be the ultimate aim of the livestock
farmer. There is the old adage which says “Prevention is better than cure”. Indeed, birds must be
health if they are to perform better, In intensive poultry production, birds may fall occasional sick
and could lead to fatal consequences if not addressed in an appropriate timely manner.
4.1.1​ Vaccination
Vaccines are substances that prevent animals from contracting diseases. It should be noted that sick
animals should never be vaccinated because they are already sick and vaccinating them will worsen
the disease condition. Broilers and Layers have different vaccine schedules and these must be
strictly adhered to if the farmer is to keep a healthy flock. Broilers spend less time in the farm
compared with Layers as a result their vaccination schedules are quite different. Below are
vaccination schedules for broilers and layer chickens. In addition to vaccination, the farmer should
also note that good nutrition on a timely basis is paramount and is the key to growing a successful
health flock
Table 6 Vaccination Schedule for Broiler Chickens
Broilers. Age ​ ​ Name of Vaccine ​ Dose ​ Route of
Administration
3-5th day ​ ​ Lasota ​ ​ ​ ​ -​ ​ ​ I/O or I/n
7-9th day ​ ​ I.B.D.​ ​ ​ ​ -​ ​ ​ I/O or D/W
16-18th day​ ​ I.B.D. (booster)​​ ​ -​ ​ ​ D/W
24-26th day ​​ Lasota (booster) ​ ​ -​ ​ ​ D/W
Note : I/N – Intra Nasal; I/O – Intra Occular; D/W – Drinking water; I/M – Intra Muscula

4.1.2​ Biosecurity Measures

Biosecurity is set of measures taken by the farmer to prevent the introduction of diseases into the
farm. Farm attendants, vehicles, wild birds and vermin are potential carriers of diseases and if
allowed into the farm without the necessary precautions will introduce diseases into the farm. Some
of these biosecurity measures include:
1. Poultry houses should be constructed at least 50' away from residential areas.
2. Birds from brooding to laying stages must have no direct contact with other free-ranging poultry
and wild birds. Place feeders and waterers inside the poultry house so as not to attract outside birds.
3. Limit visitors and acquaintances to the farm. Do not allow any type of vehicle to come close to
or park near the facility.
4. Report any high incidence of sick or dead birds immediately to the Animal Health authorities
5. Maintain cleanliness and sanitation both inside the poultry house and the premises. Disinfect
poultry houses in between periods of replacement of stocks.
Table 7 Vaccination Schedule for Layer Chickens

AGE VACCINE ROUTE

Day 1 Marek's Disease Given at the Hatchery

Day 9-14 Newcastle Disease (NDV) Drinking water, eye drop

Day 9-14 Infectious Bronchitis (IBV) Drinking water

Day 14 Gumboro/Infectious Bursal Disease (IBDV) Drinking water

Day 28 Gumboro/Infectious Bursal Disease (IBDV) Drinking water

Week 4 Newcastle Disease (NDV) Drinking water or eye

drop

Week 4 Infectious Bronchitis (IBV) Drinking water

Week 8 Fowl pox wing web jab

Week 8 Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE) wing web jab

Week 9 Infectious Coryza 1 Intramuscular

Week 10-11 NDV (Komarov Strain) Intramuscular

Week 12 Infectious Coryza 2 Intramuscular

Week 12 Infectious Bronchitis (IBV) Drinking water

Week16 Laryngotracheitis Spray or eye drop

Week 17 ND + IB + EDS (3 in 1 Vaccine) Intramuscular

4.2​ Poultry Diseases and Their Symptoms

1. Newcastle Disease - This problem is sudden and the observed symptoms include: high morbidity
and mortality rate; cold-coughing, sneezing and rattling; twisting of head and neck; uncoordinated
movement and paralysis. Egg production drops to zero in a matter of days.

Figure 11 Birds Showing Signs of Newcastle Disease (NCD)

2. Fowl Pox - The observed symptoms can either be dry or wet. Dry poxes can be seen as
pimple-like growths in the legs, wattles, and combs. These growths eventually form scabs on the
surface. When growths are inside the mouth cavity, it is considered wet pox and it is more fatal
since the birds cannot eat or drink.

Figure 12 Birds Showing Signs of Fowl Pox Disease (FPD)

3. Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) – The observed symptoms include dyspnea, stretching of the
throat and sitting on the hock. It is accompanied by anorexia and pyrexia. The sick birds are
self-isolated and may die within a week or two.

Figure 13 Birds Showing Signs of Infectious laryngotracheitis Disease (ILT)

4. Bacillary White Diarrhea (Pullorum Disease)– is caused by the pathogen belonging to the
salmonella group. The incidence of diarrhea can be triggered by different causes. It can be in the
form of bloody, yellowish or whitish discharges. If symptoms of this problem appear, call your
local extension agent for advice.

Figure 14 Birds Showing Signs of Pullorum Disease/Bacillary White Diarrhea Disease (BWD)

5. Parasites - The observed symptoms of this problem include: stunted growth; ruffled feathers;
pale color of face despite good nutrition and management. Dead birds can be routinely checked for
worm load by doing an autopsy. The birds̓ feathers, skin and body parts should be routinely
checked for mites, lice, and fleas.

6. Respiratory Infections - The observed symptoms of this problem are sneezing, coughing, nasal
discharge and swelling of the face. If symptoms of this problem appear, call your veterinarian or
local extension service office for advice. Examples of respiratory diseases include Avian Infectious
Bronchitis

Figure 15 Birds Showing Signs of Avian Infectious Bronchitis)

 Unit Five

5.​ Farm Record Keeping and Cost Benefit Analysis

5.1​ Farm Record Keeping

Recording keeping is a best practice in poultry production. A comprehensive record of all

expenditure and revenue will enable the farmer to evaluate the success or failure of the business.
Emphasis will then be laid on areas that are posing serious financial problems. The performance of
the business could also be evaluated at several intervals and corrective measures can then be put in
place. Detailed farm record keeping is crucial when making important business or planning
decisions for your operation. Not only is it a poor business practice to not keep records of farming
activities, but it can be illegal not to keep your records in order. Farm records can include any of the
following: expenses, labor, vaccination dates, marketing, and planning.

5.2​ Why Keep Farm Records:

1. At a minimum, growers must keep records to comply with legal requirements for taxes and
restricted chemical use applications, but additional record keeping is a valuable tool. Many growers
track their expenses, from equipment runtime, to labor costs, to fuel and feed costs. Tracking labor,
equipment, and feed costs enable you to make informed decisions when pricing your products to
ensure greater profits.
2. Harvest yield records can be used to compare farm products (eggs, poultry meat, etc) from year
to year, to help growers make educated decisions regarding poultry management in the future.
3. Vaccination and disease records are absolutely essential for both food and worker safety. Records
of vaccination dates, vaccines and drugs used, and safety intervals such as the withdrawal interval
and protect your customers and employees from exposure to potentially harmful residues and
zoonotic diseases
4. Labor Tracking and worker productivity records are an aspect of record keeping that are essential
for managing payroll and piecemeal payouts for your farm workers. More efficient payroll record
keeping can save valuable time and money by speeding up the payroll process. Effectively tracking
piece-rates for harvest can motivate workers, and make assessing overall productivity easier.
5. Food safety and traceability are a growing concern for poultry farmers and consumers
worldwide. The Global Food Safety Initiative, or GFSI, established in 2000 sets global food safety
standards, and certifications that demonstrate that produce has passed its rigorous food safety
standards.

5.3​ Types of Poultry Farm Records to Keep

1.​ Farm Records

2.​ Egg records
3.​ Stock records
4.​ Selling records
5.​ Financial records
6.​ Mortality records
Date——————————————————–
House No:———————————————–
Breeds:—————————————————-
Date Hatched:——————————————–
Mortality for Today:————————————-
Mortality for the Month:——————————–
Culled/Supplied for marketing:———————–
Balance for today:—————————————
Balance for the Month:———————————
Poultry Attendants:————————————–
Now the content on each form is as follows:
Date: you must keep the date of an incident regarding birds. for example: date bought, date
sold, date treated, date died etc.

5.4​ Evaluation (Cost-Benefit Analysis) of the Performance of the Poultry Farm

 The cost-benefit approach enables the poultry farmer to make periodic checks on the general
performance of the farm. It includes overall estimates on all inputs and can then extrapolate the
level of financial involvement. This approach is based on certain experienced documented as
standard performance indicators. Let us take a hypothetical example for our practice and
consumption. This example illustrates an entire layer production cycle.

As a Poultry farmer, you are contracted to supply 125,000 fresh eggs, 90% of which must be hen
eggs and the remaining pullet eggs and 500 spent layers to Apex Hotel in Makeni in 24 months
period. The birds were subjected to three (3) feeding regimes fed with Chick starter mash for 8
weeks; Pullet Developer mash for up to 21 weeks and Layer mash for 72 weeks (Marketing of
spent Layers). One (1) person was employed to as Assistant to the farm. Given the following data,
prepare a production estimate and work plan to enable you deliver the goods in record time.
Market Survey of existing costs as at 30th September 2021. Given:

⚫​ Cost of day-old chicks​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Le15,000.00

⚫​ Cost of starter mash (50 kg/bag)​​ ​ ​ ​ Le180,000.00

⚫​ Cost of Grower mash (50 Kg/bag)​ ​ ​ ​ Le150,000.00

⚫​ Cost of Layer mash (50 kg/Bag)​​ ​ ​ ​ Le150,000.00

⚫​ Cost of one spent layer chicken​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Le45,000.00

⚫​ Cost of pullet eggs/dozen​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Le30,000.00

⚫​ Cost of hen eggs/dozen​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Le35,000.00

⚫​ Cost of dressing one bird​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Le3,000.00

⚫​ Net untaxed salary of one hand labor/month​ ​ ​ Le600,000.00

⚫​ Cost of manure (50 kg/bag)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Le100,000.00

⚫​ Average weight of bird at 8 weeks​ ​ ​ ​ 1800 g

⚫​ Average weight of bird at 22 weeks​ ​ ​ ​ 2940 g

⚫​ Average weight of bird at 72 weeks​ ​ ​ ​ 3970 g

⚫​ Average FCR at 8 weeks​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 2.80

⚫​ Average FCR at 22 weeks​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 3.20

⚫​ Average FCR at 72 weeks​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 3.95

⚫​ Total manure produced per one production cycle​​ 1200 kg

⚫​ Take 10% cost of feeds as veterinary supply

⚫​ Take 20% cost of production as miscellaneous expenses

Determine:

⚫​ The total cost of birds

⚫​ The cost of feed consumed by the birds for the three feeding regimes

⚫​ Total cost of production

⚫​ Total cost of veterinary drugs procured

⚫​ Cost of miscellaneous expenses

⚫​ Revenue received on sale of a). Pullet eggs and b). Hen eggs

⚫​ Cost of labor

⚫​ Revenue received on sale of spent layers

⚫​ The Profit/Loss of the entire production

⚫​ The percentage contribution of feed to total cost of production

⚫​ The percentage contribution of proceeds sales of eggs to total profit/loss

⚫​ What is your opinion about the production system and why?

⚫​ How can you improve on production husbandry activities?

Table 8 A Hypothetical Cost-Benefit Analysis for 500 Layer Chickens

 Unit Cost Total Cost
No Financial item Quantity (Le) (Le)
Cost Items
Animals (Day-old-chicks)
1 500 + 2% mortality = 510 birds 510 birds 15,000.00 7,650,000.00
Sub total 7,650,000.00
Feeding comprising of 3 feeding
regimes:
We use the formula FCR =
FC/WG
a). Chick starter mash:
FCR = FC/WG; FC = FCR x
WG
= 2.80 x 1800g ; FC = 5040g
= 5040g x 510 birds
= 2,570,400g; 2,570,400/1000kg 51.4 bags 250,000.00 12,850,000.00
= 2,570,4 kg of feed consumed
2 by all birds
= 2,570.4/50 kg = 29.98bags of
feeds
=29.988 ≈ 51.4 bags

b). Pullet Developer Mash:

FCR = FC/WG; FC = FCR x 95.96 bags 240,000.00 23,030,400.00
WG
= 3.2 x 2940g ; FC = 9408g
= 9408g x 510 birds
= 4,798,080g;
4,798,080g/1000kg
= 4,798.08 kg of feed consumed
by all birds
= 4,798.08/50 kg = 95.96 bags of 159.95 bags 250,000.00 39,987,500.00.00
feeds 75,867,900.00

c). Layer mash

FCR = FC/WG; FC = FCR x
WG
= 3.95 x 3970g ; FC =
15,681.50g
= 15,681.50g x 510 birds
= 7,997,565.00g;
7,997,565.00g/1000kg
= 7,997.57 kg of feed consumed
by all birds
= 7,997.57/50 kg = 96.94 bags of
feeds
Sub total
Labor: I man x 24 months
 3 = 1 man x Le600,000/month x 12 months 600,000.00 14,400,000.00
24 months 14,400,000.00
Sub total
Processing of chickens:
4 Le5,000.00 for each chicken
dressed 510 layers 5,000.00 2,550,000.00
Le5,000.00 x 510 spent layers 2,550,000.00
Sub total
5 Veterinary supplies:
Take 10% of total cost of feeds
= 10/100 x 75,867,900.00 10% 7,596,790.00 7,596,790.00
Sub total 7,596,790.00

Total 100,064,690.00
6 Miscellaneous expenses
= 5% of total cost of production
= 5/100 x 100,064,690.00 1 5,003,234.50.00 5,003,234.50.00
5,003,234.50.00
Grand Total 105,067,924.50
Unit Cost Total Cost
No Financial item Quantity (Le) (Le)
Revenue Items
1 Eggs: Total eggs produced =
125,000
a). Hen egg: 90% should be hen
eggs
= 90/100 x 125,000 9,375 doz 35,000.00 328,125,000.00
= 112,500
=112,500/12

b). Pullet eggs: 10% of total eggs

produced 1,041.7 doz 30,000.00 31,251,000.00
= 10/100 x 125,000 359,376,000.00
= 12,500
= 12,500/12
Sub total
2 Spent layers:
= 500 spent layers 500 45,000.00 22,500,000.00
Sub total 22,500,000.00
3 Poultry Manure:
= 1200 kg
= 1200 kg/50kg
= 24 bags 24 bags 100,000.00 2,400,000.00
Sub total 2,400,000.00
Grand total 384,276,000.00
Profit and Loss = R-E
Where R = Revenue
E = Expenditure
Le384,276,000.00
E = Le105,067,924.50
‫؞‬P/L = Le384,276,000.00 – Le105,067,924.50
= Le279,,208,075.50
Percentage contribution of feeds to total cost of production:
Total cost of feeds = Le75,867,900
Total cost of production = Le105,067,924.50
= Le75,867,900.00/Le105,067,924.50 x 100

= 72.20%
Total contributions of proceeds of eggs to total revenue:
Total proceeds from sales of eggs = Le359,376,000.00
Total Revenue received = Le384,276,000.00
359,376,000/384,276,000 x 100 = 93.5%
 UNIT SIX
IMPROVEMENT OF THE INDIGENOUS LOCAL CHICKENS
6.1​ The Indigenous Local Chicken
The indigenous local chicken also referred to as the scavenging or village chicken is a
breed that is hardy and well adapted to the local environment. Local chickens are
extensively reared with very little inputs if any. The major inputs from the owner is to take
stock of the flock and provide accommodation where necessary. The birds are often left on
a self-supporting system and roaming the immediate environment for food. Their main diet
constitutes of grains and insects which they peck around. They may also trek farther
distance if food is scare in the immediate vicinity thereby exposing their chicks to
inclement weather and aerial predators. They are inferior to exotic birds in terms of weight
and number of eggs lain. Their major constraint is the outbreak of diseases especially
Newcastle Diseases which may account for 99% mortality.
6.2​ Characteristics of Local Village chickens
The following are characteristics attributed to local chickens:
i. The system is characterized by low inputs and outputs
ii. High mortality rate due to the outbreak of endemic diseases such as Newcastle
iii. They are smaller in size and number of eggs laid compared to their exotic counterparts
iv. The are well adapted to the local environment
v. Their meat tastes better and is preferred by consumers
6.3​ Uses of Local Chickens
Local chickens play an important role in African tradition and are often considered as part
of the traditional settings where they occupy an indispensable niche.
i. They provide a rich source of cheap proteins
ii. They are used to welcome important guests
iii. They are at times sacrificed to avert abomination in the family
iv. They can be easily sold and converted to cash
v. They are appreciated as a respectable gift to friends and relatives
6.4​ Improvement of Local Chickens
Considering the useful purposes to which local chickens have been credited, their
production system still remains traditional with corresponding low inputs and outputs.
However, solutions have been proffered in order to improve on the performance of the
local chicken
i. Genetic improvement – Exotic cocks can be cross-bred with local hens and the progenies
have shown remarkable increase in weight and the number and size of eggs laid.
ii. A starter ration such as few grains or kitchen leftovers can reduce on the distance
covered in search of food
iii. Provide accommodation suitable for specific category of birds
iv. Provide I-2 Thermostable vaccine which is applied as an eye drop to protect them
against Newcastle disease
v. Chicks can be nursed in isolation and provided with all logistics. This will reduce the
dangers from predators
6.5​ Genetic Upgrading of Local Chickens
Local chickens can be subjected to crossbreeding using exotic of genetically proven local
breeds. Exotic cocks are often introduced among local hens in the ration of 1: 10 (one cock
to ten hens). These are called the parent stock. If the female is mated successfully, she will
lay fertile eggs that will eventually hatch into hybrid baby chicks. These chicks will
demonstrate appreciable weight gain and lay more eggs provided they are supplied with all
the resources they require to perform.
6.6​ General Guidelines:

1.​ Run your farm like a business. Therefore, make full records of all transactions
2.​ Observe biosecurity measures at all times
3.​ Ensure there is a ready market and immediately market your birds when absolutely
necessary otherwise they will eat up your profit
4.​ Try to prudently use feeds and if possible reduce feed intake by birds without
compromising their performance
5.​ Visit your farm regularly to establish acquaintance with your birds. This bond is necessary
to build confidence in the partnership
6.​ Allow one attendant for each poultry house.
7.​ Vaccination is key to disease prevention and control. Don’t joke with it
Rhode Island Red

White Leghorn
 Plymouth Rock

Figure 16 Selected Tropicalized Poultry Breeds