Module II
Lecture-10: Introduction to differential forms∗
1 Differential p-forms
There an alternative to vector calculus (in Euclidean space or Minkowski spacetime or more general
spacetimes) which exclusively uses antisymmetric tensors of rank (0, p) (aka differential p-forms)
and is called (Cartan’s) exterior calculus. The ingredients for this are
• Differential p-forms (ω(p) )
• Wedge product operation (Λ)
• Exterior derivative operation (d)
• (Hodge) star operation (∗)
First we discuss differential forms. To illustrate this concept, let’s revisit the Maxwell field strength
tensor, F = Fµν dxµ ⊗ dxν . Since the field strength is antisymmetric,
Fµν = −Fνµ ,
one can write,
F = Fµν dxµ ⊗ dxν ,
1 1
= Fµν dxµ ⊗ dxν + Fµν dxµ ⊗ dxν ,
2 2 |{z}
=−Fνµ
1 1
= Fµν dxµ ⊗ dxν − Fνµ dxµ ⊗ dxν .
2 2
Now since µ and ν are dummy indices one can relabel µ to ν and vice-versa in the second term,
which gives,
1
F = Fµν (dxµ ⊗ dxν − dxν ⊗ dxµ ) .
2
This antisymmetric combination of direct products of basis elements, dxµ ’s are called differential
forms. In this particular case they are called 2-forms since the involve an antisymmetrized direct
product of two basis elements. Such antisymmetrized direct product is denoted by a wedge ∧
symbol, and dubbed as Wedge product
dxµ ∧ dxν ≡ dxµ ⊗ dxν − dxν ⊗ dxµ .
∗
Please report typos and errors to [email protected] / [email protected].
1
Evidently,
dxµ ∧ dxν = −dxν ∧ dxµ .
In terms of this wedge product, the Maxwell field strength is expressed as
1
F = Fµν dxµ ∧ dxν .
2
Such as entity is known as a two form (2-form).
One can straightforwardly generalize this to higher orders. For example one can define a basis
made up of antisymmetrized direct products of 3 basis elements, by defining their wedge product:
dxµ ∧ dxν ∧ dxρ = dxµ ⊗ dxν ⊗ dxρ − dxν ⊗ dxµ ⊗ dxρ − dxρ ⊗ dxν ⊗ dxµ − dxµ ⊗ dxρ ⊗ dxν
+ dxν ⊗ dxρ ⊗ dxµ + dxρ ⊗ dxµ ⊗ dxν .
By construction this is antisymmetric in all three indices, µ, ν, ρ. This is a basis element for
3-forms, say H(3) ,
1
H = Hµνλ dxµ ∧ dxν ∧ dxρ .
3!
The components Hµνρ are antisymmetric in all three indices:
In general differential p-forms are (0, p) rank tensors which are completely antisymmetric. Since
under frame transformations, antisymmetric tensors cannot mix with symmetric ten-
sors, the differential p-forms constitute a vector subspace in the (0, p)-tensor space.
This subspace is customarily denoted by Ωp . If we are in a (d + 1)-dimensional spacetime (i.e. d
d+1
space and 1 time), then the dimensionality of the p-form vector space is p . So one can at most
have (d + 1)-forms. (d + 2)-forms do not make sense since the antisymmetry property would make
it vanish.
References
[1] Eguchi-Gilkey-Hanson, Sec. 2.3 “Differential Forms”.
