LESSON 7 - INTEGRATION
7.1 What is Integration?
Chapters 5 and 6 were devoted to differential calculus, which measures the
rate of change of functions. Differentiation, as we learnt, is the process of
finding the derivative F ' ( x) of a function F (x) . Frequently, however, we know
the rate of change of a function F ' ( x) and want to find the original function.
Reversing the process of differentiation and finding the original function from
the derivative is called antidifferentiation or integration or integral
calculus. It is the reverse of differentiation.
7.2 The Indefinite Integral
Letting f ( x) = F ' ( x) for simplicity, the antiderivative/indefinite integral of
f (x) is expressed mathematically as,
∫ f ( x)dx = F ( x) + c if F ′( x) = f ( x)
Here, the left-hand side of the equation is read “tthe indefinite integral of f
of x with respect to x.” . This is known as indefinite integral because the
integral ∫ f ( x) dx has no definite numerical value.
The symbol ∫ is the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand, F(x) is integral of
the function f(x) and C is the constant of integration. C reflects the indefinite
nature of finding the antiderivative or indefinite integral. x is called the
variable of integration.
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Now we will discuss the nature of the anti derivative through nature of
derivative. In this regard we will attend in an activity.
Activity
1. Differentiate following functions:
(i) x3
(ii) x3+2
(iii) x3+5
(iv) x3 +7
(v) x3-1
2. You have differentiated five functions. Considering each, give the
anti derivative.
Look at all answers in the (1) above. What you see about the
derivative of all function. Because we get 3x2 for the above function as
the derivative the anti derivative of 3x2 must be any one of the above
functions. Therefore the anti-derivative of 3x2 = x3 + c: where c is any
arbitrary constant
Therefore, the family of functions obtained through this process is called the
indefinite integral. The original function F (x) is called the integral or
antiderivative of F ' ( x) .
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7.3 Methods of Integration
Many functions cannot be integrated by reversing the rules of differentiation.
The special methods considered in this section are standard forms for
Integration, integration by parts, integration by substitution.
These rules of integration are obtained by reversing the corresponding rules of
differentiation. Their accuracy can be easily checked, since the derivative if
the integral must equal the integrand.
Standard Forms:
Rule 1: Constant Function
∫ kdx = kx + c
where k is a real-valued constant
Examples:
• ∫ 3dx = 3x + c
• ∫ (−2)dx = −2 x + c
Rule 2: Power Rule
x n +1
∫ x dx = n + 1 + c
n
n ≠ -1
Examples:
x 2+1 x3
• ∫ x dx = +c = +c
2
2 +1 3
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1 3
1 +1 3
x 2
x 2
2
• ∫ x dx = ∫ x dx =
2
1
+c =
3
+ c = x2 + c
3
+1
2 2
∫ x dx = ∫ 1 dx = x + c
0
•
Rule 3: Constant times a Function
∫ kf ( x)dx = k ∫ f ( x)dx
where k is a real-valued constant
Examples:
x2 5x 2
• ∫ 5 xdx = 5 ∫ xdx = 5
2
+ c =
2
+c
x2 1 2 1 2 1 x3 x3
• ∫2 dx = ∫2 x dx =
2∫
x dx = .
2 3
+ c =
6
+c
Rule 4: Addition and Subtraction
If ∫ f ( x)dx and ∫ g ( x)dx exist, then,
∫ [ f ( x) ± g ( x)]dx = ∫ f ( x)dx ± ∫ g ( x)dx
Examples:
2
3x 3x 2 3x 2
• ∫ (3x − 6)dx = ∫ 3xdx − ∫ 6dx = 2
+ c1 − (6 x + c 2 ) =
2
− 6 x + c1 − c 2 =
2
+c
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∫ (4 x ) 4x3 7x 2
• 2
− 7 x + 6 dx = ∫ 4 x 2 dx − ∫ 7 xdx + ∫ 6dx = − + 6x + c
3 2
Rule 5: Power Rule Exception (logarithmic rule)
∫ dx = ln x + c
−1
x
This is the exception associated with Rule 2 (Power Rule)
where n = -1 for xn , where x ≠ 0
Example:
∫ 3x dx = 3∫ x −1 dx = 3 ln x + c
−1
•
Rule 6: substitution rule
[ f ( x)] n +1
∫ [ f ( x )] . f ′( x)dx = +c
n
(n + 1)
For n ≠ −1
( x + 3) 2 5
Examples: ∫ ( x +
2
3) 2 xdx
4
= +C
5
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Rule 7: the exponential rule
a kx
∫ a dx = k ln a + c
kx
where a and k are real constants.
Examples:
• ∫ 23xdx = 23x + c
3 ln2
1 2 1 2x
• ∫3 dx = .31 2 x = .3 dx + c
1 2x
1 2 ln 3 ln 3
Rule 8: Natural Exponential Functions
1 kx
∫ dx = e +c
kx
e (ln e e = 1)
k
where k is a real constant.
Examples:
1 3x
• ∫ 9e
3x
dx = 9. .e + c = 3e 3 x + c
3 ln e
1 1 −1
• ∫e x
dx = ∫ e − x dx =
− 1ln e
.e − x = x + c
e
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Rule 9:
∫ f’(x).ef(x)dx = ef(x) + c
This rule requires that the integrand be in a very specific
form
Examples:
∫ 2e dx = e +c
2 x +1 2 x +1
•
1 1 2 1
∫ xe ∫
x2 2
dx = 2 xe x dx = e x dx = e x + c
x
•
2 2 2
Note: In the 2nd example, we rearrange the sum so as to obtain the derivative
of x2 (which is 2), by dividing and multiplying the sum by 2, thereby canceling
each other out and maintaining the original sum.
Rule 10:
∫ f’(x) dx = ln|f(x)| + c
f(x)
This rule also requires that the integrand be in a very specific
form
Examples:
• ∫ 3 dx = ln (3x + 1) + c
3x + 1
18 x + 6 6x + 2
• ∫ 3x2
+ 2x
dx = 3∫ 2
3x + 2 x
dx = 3 ln |(3x2+2x)| + c
Stop your reading now and move on to Self Assessment
Exercise-1
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7.4 The Definite Integral
7.4.1 Area under a Curve
There is no geometric formula for the area under an irregularly-shaped curve,
such as y = f (x) between x = a and x = b in Figure 1(a). If the interval [a,b] is
divided into n subintervals [x1,x2], [x2,x3], etc., and rectangles are constructed
such that the height of each is equal to the smallest value of the function in
the subinterval, as in Figure 1(b), then the sum of the areas of the rectangles
∑
n
i =1
f ( xi )∆xi , called a Riemann Sum, will approximate, but underestimate,
the actual area under the curve.
y
y
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
x
0 a b 0 X1 X21 X3 X4 X5 X6 x
(a) (b)
Figure 1
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The smaller the subintervals (the smaller the ∆xi ), the more rectangles are
∑
n
created, and the closer the combined area of the rectangles i =1
f ( xi )∆xi
approaches the actual area under the curve. If the number of subintervals is
increased so that n → ∞ , each subinterval becomes extremely small
( ∆xi = dxi = dx ) and the area under the curve can be expressed mathematically
as,
n
A = lim ∑ f ( xi )∆xi
n →∞
i =1
7.4.2 The Definite Integral
The area under a graph of a continuous function such as that in Figure 1 from a
to b (a<b) can be expressed more concisely as the definite integral of
f (x) over the interval a to b. Put mathematically,
n
∫ f ( x )dx = lim ∑ f ( xi ) ∆xi
b
a
n →∞
i =1
Here the left-hand side is read, “tthe integral from a to b of f of xdx .” Here a is
called the lower limit of integration and b the upper limit of integration.
Unlike the indefinite integral which is a set of functions containing all the
antiderivatives of f (x) , the definite integral is a real number which can be
evaluated by using the fundamental theorem of calculus, explained in the
following section.
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7.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that the numerical value of the
definite integral of a continuous function f (x) over the interval from a to b is
given by the indefinite integral F ( x) + c evaluated at the upper limit of
integration b, minus the same indefinite integral F ( x) + c evaluated at the
lower limit of integration a. Since c is common to both, the constant of
integration is eliminated in subtraction. Expressed mathematically,
∫ f ( x ) dx = [F ( x )] = F (b) − F ( a )
b b
a a
where the symbol [....]a indicates that b and a are to be substituted successively
b
for x.
What happens to the constant c??
∫ F ( X )dx = [ F ( x ) + c ] = [ F (b) + c] − [ F (a ) + c]
b
a
a
= [ F (b) + c − F (a) − c]
= [ F (b) − F (a )]
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Conditions for Computing the Definite Integral
f (x) must be continues on [a,b]
f (x) must be non-negative over the interval [a,b]
f (x) must have an anti derivative on [a,b]
Therefore f ( x) ≥ 0 a≤ x≤b
Example :
The definite integrals given below,
4 3
∫ ∫ (4 x + 6 x)dx
3
(1) 10xdx (2)
1 1
are evaluated as follows:
4 4
(1) ∫ 10xdx = [5 x 2 ]1
= 5(4) 2 − 5(1) 2 = 75
1
3 3
(2) ∫ (4 x
3
+ 6 x)dx = [ x 4 3 x 2 ] = [(3) 4 + 3(3) 2 ] − [(1) 4 + 3(1) 4 ]
1
1
= 108 − 4
= 104
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Example :
The definite integral is used below to determine the area under the curve in
Figure 2 over the interval 0 to 20 as follows:
1
15 y= x
2
10
x
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 2
20
1 1 1 1 2
xdx = x 2 = (20) − (0) = 100
20
A=∫
2
0 2 4 0 4 4
1
The answer can be checked by using the geometric formula A = xy :
2
1 1
A= xy = (20)(10) = 100
2 2
Stop your reading now and move on to Self Assessment
Exercise-2
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7.6 Properties of Definite Integrals
Reversing the order of the limits changes the sign of the definite integral
∫ f ( x)dx = − ∫ f ( x)dx
b a
a b
If the upper limit of integration equals the lower limit of integration, the
value of the definite integral is zero
∫ f ( x)dx = F (a) − F (a) = 0
a
The definite integral can be expressed as the sum of component
subintegrals
∫ f ( x)dx = ∫ f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( x)dx
c b c
a a b
where a ≤ b ≤ c
The sum or difference of two definite integrals with identical limits of
integration is equal to the definite integral of the sum or difference of
the two functions
∫ f ( x)dx ± ∫ g ( x)dx = ∫ [ f ( x) ± g ( x)]dx
b b b
a a a
The definite integral of a constant times a function is equal to the
constant times the definite integral of the function
∫ kf ( x)dx = k ∫ f ( x)dx
b b
a a
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Example :
To illustrate the properties presented above, the following definite integrals
are evaluated:
∫ 2 x dx = − ∫ 2 x dx
3 3 1 3
1. 1 3
3
3 1 1 1
∫ 2 x dx = x 4 = (3) 4 − (1) 4 = 40
3
1
2 1 2 2
Checking this answer,
1
3 1 1 1
∫1
2 x 3 dx = x 4 = (1) 4 − (3) 4 = −40
2 3 2 2
∫ (2 x + 3) dx = 0
5
2. 5
Checking this answer,
[ ] [ ] [ ]
5 5
∫ 5
(2 x + 3)dx = x 2 + 3 x = (5) 2 + 3(5) − (5) 2 + 3(5) = 0
5
∫ 6 xdx = ∫ 6 xdx + ∫ 6 xdx
4 3 4
3. 0 0 3
[ ]
4 4
∫0
6 xdx = 3 x 2
0
= 3(4) 2 − 3(0) 2 = 48
[ ]
3 3
∫0
6 xdx = 3 x 2
0
= 3(3) 2 − 3(0) 2 = 27
∫ 6 xdx = [3x ]
4 4
2
= 3(4) 2 − 3(3) 2 = 21
3 3
Checking this answer: 48 = 27 + 21
Stop your reading now and move on to Self Assessment
Exercise-3
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Points to be remembered
Conditions for Computing Definite Integral
f (x) must be continues on [a, b]
f (x) must be non negative over the interval [a, b]
f ( x) must have an anti derivative on [a, b], therefore f ( x) ≥ 0
a≤ x≤b
The definite integral can be expressed as the sum of component sub integrals.
b b
∫ kf ( x)dx = k ∫ f ( x)dx
a a
b b b
∫
a
f ( x)dx ± ∫ f ( x)dx = ∫ [ f ( x) ± g ( x)]dx
a a
The anti derivative of f ' ( x) = e x is F ( x) = e x + c
1
The anti derivative of f ' ( x) = is F ( x) = ln x + c
x
n +1
[ f ( x) ]
∫ f ( x) . f ( x)dx = (n + 1) + c For n ≠ −1
n '
f ' ( x)
∫ f ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
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