Class XII Notes

Networking Hardware To form a computer network a lot of hardware devices are required.
Some of these devices along with their functionalities are mentioned below :
Transmission Media
Computers on a network are able to share data and other resources. They are also able to
communicate among themselves. To make all this possible there must be some medium over
which the data can travel from one computer to another. A medium of data transmission over
a computer network is called a channel or a transmission medium.
Channels may be guided (wired) or unguided (wireless).
A transmission medium is a medium of data transfer over a network. It can be wired or
wireless.
Wired Media
A number of various types of cables are used to transfer data over computer networks.
These are Twisted Pair Cable, Co-axial Cable, and Optical Fiber Cable. Let us know about these
in some details.
Twisted Pair Cable This is probably the most widely used cable for creating small computer
networks. It contains four twisted pairs covered in an outer shield. These pairs are colour
coded. An RJ-45 connecter is used to connect this cable to a computer. It is of two types:
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): As the name suggests in UTP cables individual pairs are not
shielded.
-Characteristics of UTP cable:
 It is a low-cost cable available for setting up small networks.
 It is a thin (External diameter app. 0.43cm) and flexible cable and therefore it offers
ease of installation.
 It can carry data upto a length of 100m at a stretch.
STP (Shielded Twisted pair): It is the same cable as the UTP, but with each pair shielded
individually. An outer shield then covers all the pairs like in UTP. STP data connectors are used
to connect STP cable to the computer. RJ-45 connectors can also be used to connect this cable
to a computer.
Characteristics of STP cable:
 As compared to UTP, STP offers better immunity against internal and external
electromagnetic interferences.
 It is expensive than UTP cable.
 As compared to UTP cable, STP cable is difficult to install.
Co-axial cable (or coax) -A coaxial cable consists of two conductors that share a common
axis. The inner conductor is a straight wire and the outer conductor is a shield that might be
braided or a foil.
Characteristics of Co-axial cable:
 It can carry data for a larger distance (185m - 500m) at a stretch.
 Less susceptible to electromagnetic fields
 Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair.
 Due to its thickness (1cm diameter) and less flexibility, it is difficult to install as
compared to twisted pair cable..

Optical Fiber cable -Optical Fibers are long, thin strands of glass about the thickness of a
human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical fiber cables and used to transmit data
through light signals over long distances.
An optical fiber has following parts:
Core - It is the thin glass rod at the center through which the light travels
Cladding - It is the outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the

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light back into the core
Buffer coating - It is the plastic coating that protects the cable from damage
and moisture
These optical fibers are arranged in bundles of hundreds and thousands and are protected
by the cable's outer covering, called jacket.
Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cable:
 It can carry data for a very large distance at a stretch.
 Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields
 Specially skilled people are required to install optical fiber cables.
 Till date it is the most expensive and at the same time the most efficient cable available
for computer networks.
Wireless Media
Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless communication over computer networks.
Frequencies of waves are measured in Hertz (Hz). As the frequencies of electromagnetic
waves change, their properties also change. Based on their frequencies, electromagnetic
waves are categorized into various categories.
These categories are (in increasing order of frequencies): radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and Gamma rays.
Out of these only radio waves, microwaves, and infrared rays are used for wireless
communication.
Radio waves: Radio waves have a frequency range of 3 KHz to 3GHz. Radio waves are
used for communication over distances ranging from a few meters (in walkie-talkies) upto
covering an entire city. These waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances and can
penetrate buildings easily.
That's why they are widely used for communication, both indoors and outdoors. Cordless
phones, AM and FM radio broadcast, Garage door openers etc. are
examples of radio wave transmission.
Characteristics of Radio Wave Transmission:
These waves are omni-directional, so the transmitting and receiving antennas need not be
aligned.
(Recall when you throw a stone in a pond, circular waves are generated and spread outwards.
Similarly, radio waves are generated by the transmitter and spread in all the directions.)
Relatively inexpensive than wired media.
It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain
The transmission can be interfered by motors or other electrical equipment Permission from
concerned authorities is required for use of radio wave transmission
Less secure mode of transmission
Micro Waves -Micro waves have a frequency range of 300MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300 GHz. This
range has some overlapping portion (0.3GHz - 3GHz) with radio waves as there is no clearcut
demarcation between radio waves and micro waves. Microwaves travel in straight lines and
cannot penetrate any solid object. Therefore for long distance microwave communication, high
towers are built and microwave antennas are put on their tops.
Distance between two microwave towers depends on many factors including frequency of the
waves being used and heights of the towers. These waves travel in straight lines and therefore
the sending and receiving antennas have to be aligned with each other.
An example of usage of microwaves for communication is as follows:
In the big cities where land is very costly and a lot of formalities have to be completed to get
permission to dig land for cabling, microwave antennas can be put on top of high rise buildings
and communication can be started in a short time.
Characteristics of Micro Wave Transmission:
Free from land acquisition rights
Relatively inexpensive than wired media
Offers ease of communication over difficult terrain

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The transmission is in straight lines so the transmitting and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned ( line of sight transmission)
Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz. This
technology is used for short range communication (approx. 10m) in a variety of devices for
wireless communication. Baby monitors, door openers, and cell phones are some of the
devices that utilize Bluetooth communication.
Characteristics of Bluetooth Transmission:
Line of sight between communicating devices is not required. (Think Why?)
Bluetooth can connect upto eight devices simultaneously.
Slow data transfer rate (upto 1Mbps).
Network Devices
Other than the transmission media many other devices are required to form computer
networks. Some of these devices are:
NIC: Any computer which has to be a part of a computer network must have an NIC
(Network Interface Card / Unit) installed in it. A computer communicates with other
computers on a network with the help of an NIC only. Now a days, in most of the PCs and the
laptops, NIC is an integral part of the motherboard.
A Network Interface Card An NIC (Network Interface Card) is a device that enables a computer to
connect to a network and communicate.
Hub: Hub is a device that allows us to connect multiple computers/devices together in a
network. A hub has ports into which the cables from individual computers' NICs are inserted.
This way each computer's NIC is connected to hub and hence all the computers are connected
together. Whenever a computer has to send some information to some other computer(s), the
information is sent by the NIC to the hub. Then the hub retransmits this information to the
other computers attached to it. The computer(s) for which the information is intended
receive(s) this information and accept(s) it. Other computers on the network simply reject this
information.
Switch:A switch is an intelligent hub. It looks exactly like a hub. It has the same function as
that of a hub: to connect multiple computers/devices in a network.
Repeater :When the data is transmitted over a network for long distances, the data signal
gets weak after certain distance.
Gateway:When two or more networks using different hardware and software have to be
connected, some device is needed which can translate one network's language into the
other's. A gateway is a device, which is used to connect different types of networks. A gateway
is capable of understanding address architectures used in different networks and seamlessly
translate between these address architectures.
Network Topologies
Before we start discussion on network topologies, let us understand the term 'NODE'. Any
device (Computer, Scanner, Printer, etc.) which is directly connected to a computer network is
called a node. Suppose you are working on a PC at your home and then you connect it to
internet. As soon as it becomes a part of internet (which is a computer network), it becomes a
node. Similarly, in your school, all the computers which are linked to school's computer
network are nodes. Once we know about different communication media and devices to form a
computer network, we can procure these media and devices and start constructing a
computer network. Similarly, when we have to connect computers/devices in a network, there
may be certain conditions which have to be satisfied. Depending upon these conditions, there
may be different ways of interconnecting the computers/devices are physically
interconnected to form a network is called a Topology.
There exist different network topologies
Bus Topology :In bus topology all the nodes are connected to a main cable called backbone.
If any node has to send some information to any other node, it sends the signal to the
backbone. The signal travels through the entire length of the backbone and is received by the
node for which it is intended. A small device called terminator is attached at each end of the
backbone. When the signal reaches the end of backbone, it is absorbed by the terminator and
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the backbone gets free to carry another signal. This prevents the reflection of signal back on
the cable and hence eliminates the chances of signal interference.
Characteristics of Bus topology:
 It is easy to install.
 It requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.
 Failure of a node does not affect the network.
 In case of cable (backbone) or terminator fault, the entire network breaks down.
 Fault diagnosis is difficult.
 At a time only one node can transmit data.
Star Topology:In star topology each node is directly connected to a hub/switch. If
any
node has to send some information to any other node, it sends the signal to the
hub/switch
Characteristics of Star topology:
 It is more efficient topology as compared to bus topology.
 It is easy to install
 It is easy to diagnose the fault in Star topology.
 It is easy to expand depending on the specifications of central hub/switch
 Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network
 It requires more cable length as compared to bus topology.
Tree topology: Tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies. It is used to
combine multiple star topology networks. All the stars are connected together like a
bus.
Characteristics of Tree topology:
 It offers easy way of network expansion
 Even if one network (star) fails, the other networks remain connected and
working.
Javascript
Introduction:
This JavaScript tutorial is aimed primarily at those who have had at least some exposure
to another programming language. It is not our purpose here to cover the basic concepts
of computer programming, but rather illustrate the syntax and methodology of
JavaScript. For its part, JavaScript is a rather basic language, which conforms tightly to
the core concepts -of computer programming. Any background in programming, from
Visual Basic to Pascal to C (which is far more advanced) is sufficient to readily
understanding JavaScript.
Those who are true novices at programming would be better off with any number of
available books on JavaScript which take the time to explain both the specifics of the
language and programming concepts in general.
Embedding JavaScript
JavaScript code is typically embedded into an HTML document using the SCRIPT tag.
You are free to embed as many scripts into a single document as you like, using multiple
SCRIPT tags. A script embedded in HTML with the SCRIPT tag uses the format:
<script «language="JavaScript">
document.write("Hello World!") ;
//-->
</script>
The LANGUAGE attribute is optional, but recommended. You may specify that a section
of code only be executed by browsers which support a particular version of JavaScript;
for instance:
<script language="JavaScript l.2">
Another attribute of the SCRIPT tag, SRC, can be used to include an external file
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containing JavaScript code rather than code embedded into the HTML:
<script language="JavaScript" src="corefunctions.js"> </script>
JavaScript Grammar
JavaScript code, much like other programming languages, is made up of statements
which serve to make assignments, compare values, and execute other sections of code.
By and large, programmers will already be familiar with JavaScript's usage of variables,
operators, and statements. Below is a chart summarizing the main elements of JavaScript
grammar. Following, we will look at each element in detail.
Variables : Labels which refer to a changeable value.
Example: total may be possess a value of 100.
Operators :Actors which can be used to calculate or compare values.
Example: Two values may be summed using the addition operator (+); total+tax
Example :Two values may be compared using the greater –than operator (>)
total>200
Expressions : Any combination of variables, operators, and statements which evaluate to
some P[;'V-O result. In English parlance this might be termed a "sentence" or even a
"phrase", in that grammatical elements are combined into a cogent meaning. Example:
total=100;
Example: if(total>100)
Variables and Data Types :
Variables store and retrieve data, also known as "values". A variable can refer to a value
which changes or is changed. Variables are referred to by name, although the name you
give them must conform to certain rules. A JavaScript identifier, or name, must start with
a letter or underscore ("_"); subsequent characters can also be digits (0-9). Because
JavaScript is case sensitive, letters include the characters "A" through "Z" (uppercase)
and the characters "a" through "z" (lowercase). Typically, variable names are chosen to
be meaningful regarding the value they hold. For example, a good variable name for
containing the total price of goods orders would be total.
Domain Name
A domain name usually has more than one parts: top level domain name or primary
domain name and sub-domain name(s). For example, in the domain name ,
cbse.nic.inin
is the primary domain name; nic is the sub-domain of in; cbse is the sub-domain of
nic.
There are only a limited number of top level domains, and these are divided into two
categories: Generic Domain Names and Country-Specific Domain Names. For example:
Generic Domain Names:
·com - commercial business
·edu - Educational institutions
·gov - Government agencies
·mil - Military
·net - Network organizations
·org - Organizations (nonprofit)
Country Specific Domain Names:
.in - India
·au - Australia
·ca - Canada
.ch - China
.nz - New Zealand
.pk - Pakistan
.jp - Japan
.us - United States of America
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IP Address: Every machine in a network has another unique identifying number, called
its
IP Address. An IP address is a group of four bytes (or 32 bits) each of which can be a
number
from 0 to 255. A typical IP address looks like this:
59.177.134.72
Network protocol : A network protocol is a set of rules for communication among
networked devices. Protocols generally includes rules of how and when a device can
send or receive the
data, how is the sent data packaged, and how it reaches its destination.
Types of Networks
PAN - Personal Area Network: A PAN is a network of Communicating devices. It can
cover an
area of a few meters radius.
LAN - Local Area Network: A LAN is a network of computing/Communicating devices
in a room, building, or campus
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network: A MAN is a network of
computing/communicating devices within a city.
WAN -Wide Area Network: A WAN is a network of computing/communicating
devices crossing the limits of a city, country, or continent.

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No Abbreviatio
. n Full Form

1 RAM Random Access Memory

2 ROM Read Only Memory

3 CPU Central Processing Unit

4 URL Uniform Resource Locator

5 USB Universal Serial Bus

Vital Information Resource Under

7 TCP Transmission Control Protocol

8 UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply

10 PSU Power Supply Unit

11 SMPS Switched-Mode Power Supply

12 CD Compact Disc

13 DVD Digital Versatile Disc

14 BIOS Basic Input Output System

Magnetic Ink Character

16 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

17 WiFi Wireless Fidelity

18 IP Internet Protocol

19 CAD Computer Aided Design

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pg. HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol