Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Characterization of plastic debris and association of metals with

microplastics in coastline sediment along the Persian Gulf
Sina Dobaradaran a,b,c,⇑, Torsten C. Schmidt d, Iraj Nabipour e, Nahid Khajeahmadi c, Saeed Tajbakhsh a,
Reza Saeedi f, Mohammad Javad Mohammadi g, Mozhgan Keshtkar c, Maryam Khorsand c,
Fatemeh Faraji Ghasemi c
a
The Persian Gulf Marine Biotechnology Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
b
Systems Environmental Health, Oil, Gas and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
c
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
d
Instrumental Analytical Chemistry and Centre for Water and Environmental Research (ZWU), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, Germany
e
The Persian Gulf Tropical Medicine Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
f
Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health, Safety and Environment, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
g
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health and Environmental Technologies Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Science, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study reports number, size and color distribution, and metal contents of microplastics as well as
Received 27 February 2018 adherent sediments along the Persian Gulf. Samples were collected from 9 stations in summer 2015 with
Revised 17 June 2018 a sampling time interval of 10 days. Plastic size of 2–5 mm, and 0.25 mm with 45 and 33% and white
Accepted 18 June 2018
and colorless plastics with 62 and 33% had the highest abundance considering number per m2, respec-
tively. In general, the majority of collected plastics (79%) were smaller than 5 mm (defined size for
microplastics). The mean Al, Fe, Mn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu contents of plastic fragments were 115, 531,
Keywords:
32.2, 0.035, 0.915, 2.03, 4.59, and 3.6 lg g 1, respectively while the mean Al, Fe, Mn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu con-
Marine waste
Microplastic characterization
tents of sediments were 186, 3050, 127, 0.81, 5.01, 14.5, 48.6 and 5.43 lg g 1 respectively. There were
Plastic debris size and color significant differences between the abundance of plastic items as well as the all examined metal concen-
The Persian Gulf trations of microplastics and sediments at different sampling times. As there is no regular cleanup pro-
gram in the studied areas, significant differences between plastic items number at different sampling
times (with higher plastic items number at the first day of sampling) showed that a large number of plas-
tic items may enter from beaches to the sea and become available to marine organisms.
Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction amount of plastic debris is still increasing (Thompson et al.,

2004; Goldstein et al., 2012). This seems unavoidable because most
Worldwide manufacture of plastics has grown strongly over the plastics will not biodegrade, and amounts in the aquatic environ-
last decades from 1.5 million tons per year in the 1950s to 322 mil- ment will grow over time (Andrady, 2011). Also, plastic debris
lion tons per year in 2015 (Plastics Europe, 2016). Plastics are may be scattered by ocean currents from densely populated and
meanwhile amongst the most numerically abundant sort of aqua- industrialized regions to even the most remote and unpopulated
tic debris and beaches (Commission, 2007; Munari et al., 2017; coastal areas (McDermid and McMullen, 2004; Barnes et al.,
Thompson et al., 2009; Programme, 2005; UNEP, 2008; UNEP, 2009; Hirai et al., 2011).
2009). The accumulation of plastic particles in coastline and aqua- Once plastic debris is discarded into marine environments and
tic environment is because of the ongoing and intense release of beaches, it may sorb pollutants including persistent, bioaccumula-
plastic-based materials into the environment (de Sá, Luís and tive and toxic organics as well as metals from the surrounding
Guilhermino, 2015; Pasternak et al., 2018; Possatto et al., 2011). environment (some up to 100 times that of sediments) (Ashton
Despite attempts to clean litter from the aquatic environment et al., 2010; Holmes et al., 2012; Ogata et al., 2009; Rochman
and limitations on dumping at sea and along shoreline areas, the et al., 2013b; Teuten et al., 2007). Therefore, plastic debris possibly
behaves as a stressor to organisms (Rochman et al., 2013b), inflict-
⇑ Corresponding author at: The Persian Gulf Marine Biotechnology Research ing both chemical and physical adverse effects on animals upon
Center, Boostan 19 Alley, Imam Khomeini Street, Bushehr 7514763448, Iran. ingestion. So efforts to manage plastic debris should recognize
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Dobaradaran). the complex combination of pollutants linked with this matter.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.06.037
0956-053X/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
650 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658

There are already many studies that reported the presence of Middle East region. For example, in a study the mean concentration
organic contaminants on plastic debris (Ogata et al., 2009; Rios levels of metals such as Cd, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in seawater
et al., 2010; Hirai et al., 2011; Frias et al., 2010; Van et al., 2012; samples were reported as 0.16, 2.58, 11.53, 5.25, 12.83, 3.04, and
Karapanagioti et al., 2011; Rios et al., 2007; Ryan et al., 2012) but 8.58 µg/L respectively (Delshab et al., 2017). There is only one
the presence of metals (adsorbed, adhered, or as additives in the recent report on number (particle/kg of sediment), type and
plastic) on plastic debris has only recently been reported (Ashton dimensions of plastics along the beaches of the Strait of Hormuz,
et al., 2010; Holmes et al., 2012; Nakashima et al., 2012; Holmes Persian Gulf (Naji et al., 2017) as well as one report on the number
et al., 2014; Rochman et al., 2014). Like some organic contaminants (items/ 200 g dry sediment), shape and color of microplastics
such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (Tanaka et al., 2013), some (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2017).
metals (such as lead) found on plastic debris (Nakashima et al., So in the present study our aim was (1) to provide for the first
2012) originate from the manufacturing process as well as from time data on the quantity (items m 2), color and size distribution
environmental sorption (Ashton et al., 2010; Holmes et al., 2012). of marine plastics and microplastics in the Bushehr seaport shore-
In contrast, it has also been reported that like some organic con- line, and (2) to determine the contents of microplastics and adher-
taminants such as DDT (Ogata et al., 2009), a number of metals ent sediments with a variety of metals including trace metals
are found on plastic debris only due to environmental sorption (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cu) as well as major metals (Fe, Al, and Mn).
(Ashton et al., 2010; Holmes et al., 2012). Chemical components
in plastics from manufacturing (Robertson, 1968), degradation
2. Materials and methods
and fouling of marine plastic debris through microbial biofilms,
and colonization through algae and invertebrates (Holmes et al.,
2.1. Study area
2012; Tien and Chen, 2013) may create active sites for the sorption
and/or bioaccumulation of metals. On the other hand, unreacted
To evaluate the occurrence, number, size and color distribution
monomers in the plastics, degradation products, organic pollu-
of plastics as well as metal concentration levels of microplastics
tants, as well as metals can be leached to the environment
(size of <5 mm) and sediments, field surveys were conducted at
(Teuten et al., 2009; Dobaradaran et al., 2017a; Dobaradaran
9 stations along the Persian Gulf in Bushehr in summer 2015. All
et al., 2017b; Casajuana and Lacorte, 2003). But more research is
selected stations have a texture of sand in the surface with grain
necessary to fully understand the leaching behavior of pollutants
sizes up to 250 lm. The location of sampling stations and the geo-
from plastic debris in the marine environment.
graphic coordinates are shown in Fig. 1. All sampling stations are
According to a recent report (Barboza and Gimenez, 2015), from
close to urban areas.
2004 to 2014 microplastics research has focused on the United
States, Western Europe, Oceania, and East Asia. Though there are
some reports on the metal contents of sediment (Karbasdehi 2.2. Sampling and sample preparation
et al., 2016; Dehghani et al., 2017) and seawater samples in the
northern part of the Persian Gulf there is hardly any information At every beach examined (S1-S9), sediment samples from the
available on the occurrence and relevance of microplastics in the top 10 cm were gathered at the intertidal zone (at high tide) on

Fig. 1. Location and geographic coordinates of sampling points along the northern part of the Persian Gulf in Bushehr coastal areas.
 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658 651

2.4. Chemicals

The entire employed reagents were of analytical grade. HNO3 and

HCl used for extraction procedure were of supra pure quality (Merck,
Darmstadt, Germany). Nile Red was purchased from Sigma Aldrich
and n-hexane as well as acetone used for staining were also obtained
from Merck. All plastics and glassware were cleansed by soaking
nightly in HNO3 solution (10% w/v) and then rinsed with deionized
water. All solutions were prepared by using ultra-pure water pro-
duction system (GFL Double Distillers 2102, Burgwedel, Germany).

2.5. Metal analysis

Due to the importance of smaller plastic particles as carriers for

metals and entering the food chain (Ashton et al., 2010; Turner and
Holmes, 2011) plastics (100 plastic items) with a size of <5 mm
Fig. 2. Nile Red stained fluorescence microplastic particles in a sediment sample. (microplastics) from each beach (sampling point) at two different
times (with an interval time of 10 days) were selected randomly.
the beach from an area of 1 m2 selected at random (volume of sam- At both sampling events 3 samples were collected from each sam-
ple: 1 m2  0.1 m). Details of environmental parameters during pling point for metal analysis. First, sediments of randomly selected
sampling days including average and maximum height of wave, microplastics were completely retrieved by ultrasonication, then
average period of wave, minimum and maximum temperature of metals were extracted from microplastics by a modified aqua regia
seawater, average air temperature, direction of dominant wind, extraction. Aqua regia was prepared by mixing 3 M HNO3 and 2 M
and average speed of wind are shown in supplementary 1. First, HCl in a ratio of 1:3 (Ashton et al., 2010). Microplastic particles were
visible plastic residues were separated from the sediment’s surface added to a HDPE vial, to which 2.5 mL of 20% aqua regia was added
with tweezers, next the collected sediments were preserved in then vials were shaken at 150 rpm for 24 h. Some bulk preparation
dark glass containers and transported to the laboratory. Then of 20% aqua regia was also used throughout extraction for all blanks
sieves with different mesh sizes were used to separate plastics and calibration to ensure precision in the analysis of extraction.
items with different sizes. After that the collected sediment was In the case of sediments, the contents of plastics as sediments
introduced into a glass tank with saturated concentration level of were removed before being sieved through a 1 mm mesh. Then
NaCl (360 g L 1) and agitated for 1 min at 200 rpm. The super- 0.5 g of sediment was weighted into a digestion tube, to which
natant was then poured into a second 1000-mL glass tank and 1 mL 3 M HNO3 and 4 mL 2 M HCl were added. Then, tubes were
allowed to settle for 18 h, then the remaining and floating plastics placed in a cold Tecator block and left for pre–digestion for 2 h.
were recovered by using a Whatman filter paper (pore size, 2.5 After that, an additional 0.5 mL of 3 M HNO3 was added to the
lm) under vacuum filtration (JB vacuum pump, USA). Then, filters digestion tubes and the contents were kept at 150 °C for 2 h. After-
were dried at 70 °C for 20 min in an oven. Micro-sized plastics ward, the contents were allowed to cool and transferred to 25-mL
were determined by using Nile Red (NR) staining. A stock solution glass volumetric flasks. Subsequently, the contents were diluted
of 400 mg L 1 NR in acetone was prepared, then 50 mg L 1 NR in 100–fold before analysis.
n-hexane was prepared from the stock solution for staining. An Analyses of Al, Cd, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, and Pb were performed by
epifluorescence microscope (Nikon 80i, Tokyo, Japan) equipped using Spectro Arcos ICP—optical emission spectrometer (SPECTRO,
with a DS-5Mc-L1 digital camera was used to observe green fluo- Germany). Details of the instrumental operating conditions are
rescence (Fig. 2). Sampling at each beach examined was performed presented in supplementary 2. A marine sediment reference mate-
two times (second sampling was done in the same place by using rial (MESS-1, supplied by the National Research Council, Canada,
Global Positioning System (GPS), Garmin model) with a time inter- NRC) was used for validation of the method. The recovery (%) ran-
val of 10 days to evaluate the number of plastic debris, metal con- ged from 92 to 106%. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of
tents of Al, Cd, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, and Pb with microplastics as well quantification (LOQ) of the examined elements in microplastics
as sediments at different times. A 100% cotton lab coat was worn were in the range of 0.0011–0.0542 and 0.0035–0.1805 µg g 1
throughout all phases of analysis processes to avoid cross- respectively and in the case of sediments these values were in
contamination. Furthermore, at the beginning of the procedure, a the range of 0.00153–0.1083 and 0.0071–0.3610 µg g 1 respec-
glass petri dish was left as a control for airborne microplastics tively (See supplementary 3). Reagent blanks, without added sedi-
contamination. ment samples, were also checked throughout the analysis of the
sediment samples and examined metals were undetectable
therein. Statistical analysis of data was performed with SPSS
2.3. Size and color classification
(Version 21). The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used for elucida-
tion of statistically significant differences between the number of
Plastic debris at all sampling points was quantified and sepa-
plastic items, the abundance of different size categories of plastic
rated by size, and color. To evaluate size distribution of plastic deb-
items, the abundance of different color classes, concentration
ris, plastic pieces were classified and counted as follows: category
levels of metals in the microplastic particles and sediment samples
1 (0.25 mm), category 2 (>0.25; 0.5 mm), category 3 (>0.5; 1
at different sampling times. Differences in mean values were
mm), category 4 (>1; 2 mm), category 5 (>2; 5 mm), category
accepted as being significant if p < 0.05.
6 (>5; 10 mm), category 7 (>10; 20 mm), category 8 (>20;
100 mm), category 9 (>100 mm).
The abundance of different colors of plastics (only plastic parti- 3. Results and discussion
cles >0.25 mm considered) were classified to 17 color classes includ-
ing white, creamy, red, orange, blue, opaque, black, gray, brown, So far studies rarely focus on metal contents of microplastics,
pink, green, yellow, tan, transparent, pigment, purple, and colorless. therefore besides occurrence and number, size and color
652 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658

distribution of plastic debris, we present metal concentration standardized sampling, sample preparation and microplastics
levels in microplastics as well as sediments on beaches. analysis protocols (Renner et al., 2018).
The abundance of plastic debris on the studied beaches is of
important concern in Bushehr beaches. Some beachgoers in Bush-
3.1. Plastic item abundance ehr straightly dispose of debris at the studied coastal area where
they visit. It has been reported that there is a significant relation-
A total of 18 sediment samples were collected at nine beaches ship between human population-density and microplastic debris
shown on the map (Fig. 1) and a total of 82,612 plastic items were number (Rochman et al., 2013a). As the number of inhabitants con-
counted. The abundance of the entire plastic items found on coasts tinues to grow, the occurrence of microplastic materials will also
is represented as the number of items m 2. The abundance of the possibly increase.
plastic items in the stations S1-S9 on the first day of sampling Wilcoxon signed rank analysis also demonstrated a statistically
and 10 days later are shown in Fig. 3. The highest plastic abun- significant difference (p-value of 0.007) between the abundance of
dance on the first day of sampling among the beach stations was plastic items at different sampling times along the urban coastal
found in Jofre (S2) with 25,453 items m 2 and the lowest one areas. The total number of collected plastic items on the first day
was found in TV (S1) with 618 items m 2. The highest plastic abun- of sampling was 55,790 items while this number at the second
dance after 10 days of sampling among the beach stations was sampling event after 10 days was 26822. As there is no cleanup
found in Rishehr (S4) with 15,007 items m 2 and the lowest one program in the studied areas, significant differences between plas-
was found in TV (S1) with 284 items m 2. The orders of plastic tic item abundance at different sampling times showed that large
abundance (referring to the mean number of both sampling numbers of plastic items may enter from beaches to the sea and
events) among the beach stations were Jofre (S2) > Rishehr (S4) > become available to marine organisms.
Lian (S5) > Negin (S7) > Shif (S9) > Shogab (S3) > Bandargah (S6) >
Abassak (S8) > TV (S1) with 15391, 13237, 4619, 2115, 1878,
1406, 1356, 855, 451 items m 2, respectively. The high abundance 3.2. Size and color distribution
of plastic debris at Jofre (S2) can be due to fishing activities as well
as improper disposal of plastics by fishermen. In contrast, the The distribution of plastics according to size for the studied
abundance of plastics at Rishehr (S4) can be due to a sewage efflu- shoreline is presented in Fig. 3. In total plastics of category 5 (>2;
ent outlet as well as the popularity of this beach and direct wasting 5 mm), and category 1 (0.25 mm) with 45 and 33 percent had
of plastics by beachgoers. the highest abundance among all size categories (Fig. 3). Wilcoxon
In Table 1 the collected plastic items in former studies from signed rank test also showed that except for the size category 7
other regions of the world are compared with the current study. ((>10 mm and 20 mm) with a p-value of 0.038) there were no sig-
The number of plastic debris particles on Bushehr beaches along nificant differences between abundance of different size categories
the Persian Gulf was higher than on beaches in Brazil, USA, Greece, of plastic items at the consecutive sampling times. These results
South Korea, Portugal, India, Chile, Hawaii, Southwest England, showed that the abundance of microplastic size (5 mm) may
Malta, Malaysia, Japan, Slovenia, South Africa, and India (Table 1). not be influenced by the time. In both sampling events the size cat-
This can be due to fishing activities, sewage effluent, wasting of egories of 0.25 mm>; 2–5 mm; and 5–10 mm had the highest
plastic debris by beachgoers, and lack of solid waste collection in abundance among all size categories of plastic items. Further stud-
the studied area. Our results revealed that the northern part of ies highly recommended to find out the effects of environmental
the Persian Gulf is highly polluted by micro and macroplastics parameters on size distribution of plastic items in marine environ-
compared to results of former studies worldwide. However, one ment. In Table 1 besides abundance, also the size of collected plas-
should also keep in mind that such abundances among different tic items in former studies is compared with the current study. The
studies are currently difficult to compare due to the lack of majority of collected plastics (79.32%) were smaller than 5 mm

Fig. 3. The distribution of the plastic fragment items by size in the stations at (a) day 1 and (b) at day 10.
Table 1
Details of collected plastic items in former studies from other regions of the word in comparison to this study.
2
Country/Region Location specification Particle size Items m Color Reference
Brazil Beach (Western Atlantic) 2–5, <10, <15, <20 mm 168 items – do Sul et al. (2009)
(81%) 39 items
<25, <30, <50, <100 mm
19%)
South Korea Beach (Yellow Sea) 50 µm- 5 mm 56–285,673 items – Kim et al. (2015)
Portugal Beach (North Atlantic Ocean) 10 mm > (10%) – Martins and Sobral (2011)
5mm > (72%)
Greece Beach (Aegean Sea) 4 mm > items  2mm 3309 items – Kaberi et al. (2013)
2mm > items  1 mm 2633 items
India Beach (Arabian Sea) 1–5 mm (41.85%) 68.83 items – Jayasiri et al. (2013)
1–20 mm (75%)
2–5 mm (17%)
South Korea Beach (Yellow Sea) 1–5 mm 8205–27,606 items – Lee et al. (2013)
5-5 mmn 238 – 237 items
> 25 mm 0.97–1.03 items
(dry and rainy season)

S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658

Arzew Gulf Beach (Mediterranean Sea) – – Bouchentouf et al. (2013)
Chile Beach (Pacific Ocean) 1 to 4.75 mm (85%) 1–805> – Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel
4.75 to 10 mm (15%) (2013)
Hawaii Beach (Pacific Ocean) – – Carson et al. (2011)
Southwest Beach (Atlantic Ocean) – 100 pellets White or off-white (59%) black (29%), yellow Holmes (2013)
England (1%), purple (4%) and blue (7%)
Malta Beach (Mediterranean Sea) – 1000 pellets White, yellow, amber or brown Turner and Holmes (2011)
grey, green, red, blue  2%
white  80%
Malaysia Coastline (Andaman Sea) – 2544 White (69.70%), pink (0.10%), yellow (15.90%), Ismail et al. (2009)
red (0.7%), blue (2.90%), black (5.50%), brown
(0.3%), grey (1.7%) green (3%), purple (0.2%)
–
Hawaiian Beaches (Pacific Ocean) 1–2.8 mm (43%) – McDermid and McMullen
archipelago >4.75 mm (1843) (2004)
2.8–4.75 mm (9109)
1–2.8 mm (8148)
Gulf of Aqaba Beaches (Red Sea) – 1232–878,400 pellet (1994), 1016– – Abu-Hilal and Al-Najjar
436, 921 pellet (1995) (2009)
Japan Japan (Sea of Japan) 2–4 mm 35,000 – Kusui and Noda (2003)
southern coast > 0.3 mm 2204
western coast
India Beach (Bay a Bengal) 2–5 mm – White, yellow, gray, black, blue, brown, green, Veerasingam et al. (2016)
red
USA Beach (Northern Gulf of Mexico estuary) 0.5–5 mm 2–117 items Black, gray Wessel et al. (2016)
Taiwan Beach (Philippine sea) 0.25–0.5 mm – White (19%), grey (13%), transparent (6%), Kunz et al. (2016)
0.5–1 mm black (5%), blue and purple (5%), green (4%),
1-2 mm yellow and orange (3%), red and pink (4%).
2-4 mm
Hawaiian Beaches (Pacific Ocean) 4 mm 2–4 mm (2914) – White/transparent (71.8%), blue (8.5%), green Young and Elliott (2016)
4–8 mm (1 2 3) (7.5%), black/grey (7.3%), red/pink (2.6%),
yellow (1.2%), orange (0.6%), brown (0.3%) and
purple (0.2%)
Mexico Beach (Pacific Ocean) <5 mm – White (2 8 7), red (20), blue (25), black (70), Retama et al. (2016)
light brown (7.5)
China Beach (lakes in Tibet plateau, China) <5 mm 563 ± 1219 items – Zhang et al. (2016)
India Beach (Vembanad Lake) <5 mm 252.80 ± 25.76 items – Sruthy and Ramasamy
(2017)

(continued on next page)

653
654 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658

(defined size for microplastics). Most plastic particles detected in

Gündogdu and Çevik (2017)

this study fit in the smaller size categories. The higher abundance

Akhbarizadeh et al. (2017)

Nel and Froneman (2015)
of smaller size plastic particles on the examined beaches can be
due to the expected high residence time in the sea and marine
environment increasing degradation processes and further frag-
mentation of plastic items (Martins and Sobral, 2011). Generally,

Present study
our results on size distribution of plastic items agree with similar
Reference

studies performed worldwide (see Table 1). In Hawaiian archipe-

lago (Pacific Ocean beaches) 90% (McDermid and McMullen,
2004), in Chile (Pacific Ocean beach) 85% (Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel,
Black ,blue, brown, cream, gray, green, opaque,

(81), red (71), yellow (62), orange (58) and gray

black (6 0 7), transparent (3 9 4), white (1 3 3),

2013), in Portugal (North Atlantic Ocean) 72% (Martins and

(0.15%), transparent (0.37%), pigment (0.16%),

red, transparent, white, yellow, pink, opaque,

orange (0.04%), blue (1.21%), opaque (1.34%),

black (0.39%), gray (0.03%), brown (0%), pink
White (61.91%), creamy (0.16%), red (0.56%),

Sobral, 2011) and in India (Arabian Sea beaches) 42% (Jayasiri

(0.01%), green (0.53%), yellow (0.08%), tan
et al., 2013) of separated plastic items had a size smaller than 5
purple (0.01%), and colorless (33.05%) mm. Microplastic particles have a bigger surface area to volume
ratio compared with macroplastic materials and are more subject
Black/ blue, green, red, yellow

brown (1 2 5), pink (93), blue

to sorb contaminants from the environment (do Sul and Costa,

2014). Small size is also a determining factor in the bioaccessibility
of microplastic particles to lower trophic organisms (Wright et al.,
2013). Due to less selective feeding of lower trophic organisms
compared with larger biota (Moore, 2008), trophic accumulation
orange, purple

of microplastic particles may happen. In a recent study by Farrell

and Nelson (2013), this mechanism was found in the prey Mytilus
Color

edulis and its predator Carcinus maenas. Beside this, it was reported
(26)

that microplastics can be lodged in the tissues of the crab (Farrell

and Nelson, 2013) as well as the fin whale (Fossi et al., 2012).
688.9 ± 348.2 and 3308 ± 1449 items

59 ± 20 to 217 ± 20 items/200 g dry

Trophic accumulation of microplastics also enhances health con-

cerns for humans (Thompson et al., 2009). So abundance of plas-
tics, especially smaller sizes (<5 mm), detected in this study
increases the ingestion potential by an extensive range of biota.
Considering microplastic size distribution and irregular plastic
sizes found in the present study, it should be noted that a consid-
erable portion of microplastics were presumably of secondary
0.376 item
2

sources. Microplastics of secondary sources can originate from

sediment
Items m

the further fragmentation of small plastics at sea or on land due

82,612

to various environmental degradation processes such as UV radia-

tion, physical or chemical processes (Wagner et al., 2014). Plastic
>0.25 and  0.5 mm (0.04%)
Class 2 (100 mm < MPs 250

MPs 500 mm), Class 4 (500

materials weathering and corresponding formation of secondary

>20 and  100 mm (4.29%)
mm < MPs 1000 mm) and

>5 and  10 mm (13.64%)

>10 and  20 mm (2.34%)
>0.5 and  1 mm (0.05%)

>2 and  5 mm (45.46%)

Class 1 (MPs < 100 mm),

mm), Class 3 (250 mm <

Class 5 (1000 mm < MPs

microplastics can occur at a higher rate in regions such as the Per-

>1and  2 mm (0.71%)

sian Gulf due to the hot climate and higher levels of light and heat
0.25 mm (33.06%)

>100 mm (0.41%)

(Cole et al., 2011; Andrady, 2011; Barnes et al., 2009). The hetero-
300 lm–3 cm

geneity of secondary microplastics in relation to density, polymer

0.065–5 mm
0.080–5 mm
Particle size

5000 mm)

category, shape and size, not only introduces a challenge to ecolog-

ical monitoring programs, but also enhances the variation of envi-
ronmental effects, bearing in mind that various specifications may
lead to differences in environmental fate and effect interactions
with other chemicals and biota (Syberg et al., 2015). In agreement
with our results in a study in Singapore, microplastics, mostly with
secondary sources, were predominant on tourist coastlines (Ng and
Obbard, 2006). In another study in Brazil at Boa Viagem Beach, an
important tourist destination, secondary microplastics were also
detected (Costa et al., 2010).
Beach (Mediterranean Sea)

The collected plastics (only plastic particles >0.25 mm consid-

The Persian Gulf region

The Persian Gulf region

Location specification

ered) displayed a variety of colors. The distribution of plastics

Beach (India ocean)

according to color for the studied shorelines is presented in

Fig. 4. As seen in Fig. 4, white and colorless plastics were the most
abundant compared to other colors. In total, plastic debris of white
and colorless with 62 and 33% had the highest abundance among
all colors. Wilcoxon signed rank analysis also demonstrated no sig-
nificant differences between the abundance of different color
classes of plastic items at different sampling times. White and col-
Iran, Khark Island
Table 1 (continued)

Country/Region

orless with 67 and 28% had the highest abundance among all colors
Iran, Bushehr
South Africa

at the first day of sampling. Similarly white and colorless with 51

and 44% had also the highest abundance among all colors during
Turkey

sampling 10 days later. In Table 1 the colors of collected plastics

in published studies are compared with the current study. Gener-
ally, our results on plastic items agree with similar studies carried
 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658 655

Fig. 4. Color distribution of collected plastic fragment items in (a) the first day and (b) after 10 days of sampling.

out worldwide. For example as seen in Table 1, in Southwest Eng- also reported that colored pellets had higher concentration levels
land (Atlantic Ocean beach) 59% (Holmes, 2013), in Malta of DDT, PCB and PAH compared with white ones (Frias et al.,
(Mediterranean Sea beaches) 80% (Turner and Holmes, 2011), in 2010). The existence of colored plastic fragments on the studied
Malaysia (Andaman Sea beach) 70% (Ismail et al., 2009) and in shorelines can be important as microplastics color may possibly
Hawaii (Pacific Ocean beaches) 72% (Young and Elliott, 2016) of contribute to the possibility of ingestion by marine biota hunt
detected plastic items had a white color. In our study 33% of sepa- because of prey item similarity (Wright et al., 2013). It should be
rated plastic items were colorless. This may occur due to some fac- noted that in one study, it was reported that the colors of the plas-
tors such as abrasion, fouling, tarring, encrustation by precipitates, tics particles collected in the coastal areas showed similar amounts
and cracking and may indicate plastics aging (Endo et al., 2005). to those of the ingested plastic particles (Boerger et al., 2010). This
Aging can be accompanied by yellowing or greying of clear, connection may point out that there is no color-based selectivity
translucent and white plastics, and by surface precipitates of both by fish during hunting but this topic needs further studies for a
biological and chemical origin (Ashton et al., 2010). In a study, it better understanding. Also, it was reported that some seabirds
was reported that aged polyethylene had higher PCB concentration select some special shape and colors of plastics mistakenly for food
levels compared with white pellets (Endo et al., 2005). Frias et al. (Barboza and Gimenez, 2015). Besides this, some aquatic predators
656 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658

such as commercially important fish and their larvae hunt on small with virgin plastic pellets and concluded that plastics may be the
zooplankton and may catch microplastic particles, which most main carrier for metals transport in the aquatic environment
look like their hunt such as white, yellow and tan plastic particles (Holmes et al., 2012). The same researchers examined trace metal
(Shaw and Day, 1994). Even the impacts of plastic additives, such (Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, as well as Co) adsorption to virgin and beached
as colorants and conditioning chemicals in the aquatic environ- plastic pellets under estuarine conditions to determine the role of
ment are not well known, but after releasing they may be a factor plastic materials on the transport of metals from the river to ocean.
in the transport of hydrophobic pollutants to marine environment In all their experiments adsorption of metals was significantly
organisms (Teuten et al., 2007). As discoloration is the result of greater for beached plastics than virgin plastics (Holmes et al.,
photo-oxidative weathering (Turner and Holmes, 2011), consider- 2014).
ing the hot climate in the Persian Gulf region with many sunny In our study, Wilcoxon signed rank analysis showed that except
hours per day, data on the plastic colors can be a key point for fur- Cr and Ni there were no significant differences between the con-
ther studies on the quantity of colorants and conditioning chemi- centration levels of all measured metals in the microplastics at dif-
cals released yearly to marine environments. ferent sampling times (Supplementary 5). Wilcoxon signed rank
analysis also demonstrated no significant differences between
the concentration levels of all measured metals in the sediment
3.3. Metal concentration levels of microplastics and sediments
samples at different sampling times (Supplementary 5). But further
studies are needed to clarify the effects of important environmen-
The mean contents of trace metals (Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cu) as well
tal parameters as well as physicochemical characteristics of marine
as major metals (Fe, Al, and Mn) in microplastics and in sediment
environments on the contaminant contents of microplastics. In a
from all stations are presented in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, total
study in San Diego Bay, the accumulation of 9 metals including
mean concentration levels of metals are always higher in the
Al, Mn, Fe, Zn, Ni, Cr, Co, Pb, as well as Cd was determined at differ-
sediments than in the plastics. Wilcoxon signed rank analysis
ent sampling times (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months). They found that the
demonstrated statistically significant differences between the con-
accumulation scheme of metals was not constant with time and
centration levels of all measured metals in the microplastic and sed-
location. The authors concluded that plastic residues may accumu-
iment samples at the first day of sampling time as well as in the
late higher concentration levels of metals when they remain longer
second sampling campaign 10 days later (See supplementary 4).
in the sea (Rochman et al., 2014). It seems more studies of this
The higher concentration levels of metals in the sediments than
topic are needed to clarify the mechanisms of metal accumulation
in the microplastics can be due to the much higher specific surface
by plastic fragments as well as metal leachates from the plastic
area of the solids. Typical values are several m2 g 1 BET specific
fragments to the marine environment and reaching lower trophic
surface areas of sediments (Millward, 1995) compared with a
organisms.
few cm2 g 1 geometric surface area of microplastics (Mato et al.,
2001). Some factors such as algal debris and silt grains, porosities
and densities of charged surface sites for metal ion attraction can 4. Conclusion
be other reasons for higher concentration levels of metals in the
sediments (Ashton et al., 2010). Aging of plastic materials when The results of this study showed that considering plastic item
suspended in sea water or beached lead to a more heterogeneous numbers found in the examined beaches, plastic debris in Bushehr
and reactive surface (Holmes et al., 2014). Our results demonstrate coastal areas along the Persian Gulf is a big problem, especially
that plastics may have different content levels of metals. Previ- with regard to smaller size categories (5 mm). Although a time
ously reported results (Brennecke et al., 2016; Ashton et al., schedule for beach cleaning in Bushehr can diminish plastic debris
2010; Rochman et al., 2014; Holmes et al., 2014; Holmes et al., abundance on the beaches this is useful only for particles larger
2012) are in agreement with our results. Beside this, plastic frag- than 5 cm (Laglbauer et al., 2014). As inadequate disposal practices
ments with a heterogeneous surface can transfer sediments with prevail in the region of the Persian Gulf, it seems city managers in
higher levels of metals to sea and finally to the food chain. In a this region should move to more basic practices such as public
study at the coastline of south Devon, SW England, Ashton et al. education, especially of younger people by using media and school
reported higher contents of metals including Al, Fe, Mn, Cu, Pb, capacities. Considering the amount of plastics littered annually,
Zn, Ag, Co, Cd, Cr, Mo, and Sn in the sediments than in the plastic this report demonstrates that also considerable amounts of metals
pellets. In another study by Holmes et al., the adsorption capacities including Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu, Fe, Al, and Mn may enter the marine
of metals (including Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Cd, Pb, as well as Zn) for beached environment each year and may potentially introduce serious risks
plastic pellets (taken from shorelines of the southwestern part of to aquatic organisms, enter the food chain, and finally the human
England) and virgin plastic pellets were determined. They found body. Further research on production, transportation, fate, the
greater adsorption capacities for beached plastic pellets compared physical and chemical characteristics and effects of microplastics

Table 2
1
The mean concentration levels (µg g ) of metals in microplastic and sediment samples from nine stations along the Persian Gulf in Bushehr.

Al Cd Cr Fe Mn Ni Pb Cu
MP* Mean ± SD T=0 110.69 ± 12.35 0.04 ± 0.02 0.7 ± 0.4 435 ± 170.33 24.4 ± 11.48 1.6 ± 0.82 4.22 ± 1.6 3.8 ± 0.77
T = 10 118 ± 32 0.96 ± 0.82 1.13 ± 0.53 627 ± 326 42 ± 29 2.47 ± 0.99 4.97 ± 2.79 3.4 ± 0.73
Total mean 114.56 ± 5.47 0.035 ± 0.007 0.915 ± 0.03 531 ± 135.7 32.2 ± 12.44 2.03 ± 0.16 4.59 ± 0.53 3.6 ± 0.28
Al Cd Cr Fe Mn Ni Pb Cu
S** Mean ± SD T=0 188 ± 33 0.94 ± 1.5 5.53 ± 3.38 3053 ± 754 129 ± 38.58 15 ± 6 40.9 ± 5.8 4.91 ± 0.83
T = 10 184 ± 31 0.64 ± 0.8 4.49 ± 0.34 3037 ± 546 124 ± 16 14 ± 7 56.2 ± 58.3 5.95 ± 1.08
Total mean 186 ± 2.82 0.81 ± 0.18 5.01 ± 0.73 3045 ± 11.31 126.5 ± 3.53 14.5 ± 0.7 48.55 ± 10.81 5.43 ± 0.73

T = 0: First day of sampling time.

T = 10: Second sampling time 10 days after first sampling.
*
MP: Microplastic sample.
**
S: Sediment sample.
 S. Dobaradaran et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 649–658 657

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