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Revised Edition : 2019
 PAPER

I
TEACHING AND
RESEARCH APTITUDE

SYLLABUS AND
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

(ix)
 University Grants Commission NET Bureau

PAPER

I
Subject :
GENERAL PAPER ON TEACHING AND RESEARCH APTITUDE
The main objective is to assess the teaching and research capabilities of the candidates. Therefore, the
test is aimed at assessing the teaching and general/research aptitude as well as their awareness.
They are expected to possess and exhibit cognitive abilities. Cognitive abilities include comprehen-
sion, analysis, evaluation, understanding the structure of arguments and deductive and inductive
reasoning. The candidates are also expected to have a general awareness and knowledge of sources
of information. They should be aware of interaction between people, environment and natural re-
sources and their impact on quality of life. The details are given in the following sections.
Note :
(i) Sixty (60) multiple choice questions of two marks each will be given, out of which the candidate
would be required to answer any fifty (50). In the event of the candidate attempting more than
fifty questions, the first fifty questions attempted by the candidate would be evaluated.
(ii) Whenever pictorial questions are set for the sighted candidates a passage followed by equal
number of questions should be set for the visually handicapped candidates.
I. Teaching Aptitude
Teaching : nature, Objective, Characteristics and Basic requirements;
• Learner’s characteristics;
• Factors affecting teaching;
• Methods of teaching;
• Teaching aids;
• Evaluation systems
II. Research Aptitude
Research : Meaning, characteristics and types :
• Steps of research;
• Methods of research
• Research Ethics;
• Paper, article, workshop, seminar, conference and symposium
• Thesis writing: its characteristics and format.

(x)
 UGC NET Paper-1 Specific  xi
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

III. Reading Comprehension

A passage to be set with questions to be answered.
IV. Communication
Communication : Nature, characteristics, types, barriers and effective classroom communication.
V. Reasoning (Including Mathematical)
• Number series; letter series; codes;
• Relationships; classification
VI. Logical Reasoning
• Understanding the structure of arguments; Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and induc-
tive reasoning;
• Verbal analogies : Word analogy - Applied analogy;
• Verbal classification;
• Reasoning Logical Diagrams : Simple diagrammatic relationship, multi-diagrammatic relation-
ship;
• Venn diagram; Analytical Reasoning.
VII.Data Interpretation
• Sources, acquisition and interpretation of data;
• Quantitative and qualitative data;
• Graphical representation and mapping of data
VIII. Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
• ICT : meaning, advantages, disadvantages and uses;
• General abbreviations and terminology;
• Basics of internet and e-mailing
IX. People and Environment
• People and environment interaction;
• Sources of pollution
• Pollutants and their impact on human life, exploitation of natural and energy resources;
• Natural hazards and mitigation
X. Higher Education System : Governance, Polity and Administration
Structure of the institutions for higher learning and research in India; formal and distance education;
professional/technical and general education; value education: governance, polity and administra-
tion; concept, institutions and their interactions.
xii  UGC NET Paper-1 Specific
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SAMPLE QUESTIONS
I. Teaching Aptitude II. Research Aptitude
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

1. Which one of the following is the main 1. A researcher is generally expected to

objective of teaching ? (A) Study the existing literature in a field
(A) To give information related to the (B) Generate new principles and theories
syllabus
(C) Synthesize the ideas given by others
(B) To develop thinking power of students
(D) Evaluate the findings of a study
(C) To dictate notes to students
Key : (B)
(D) To prepare students to pass the
examination. 2. One of the essential characteristics of
research is
Key : (B)
(A) Replicability (B) Generalizability
2. Which one of the following is a good
(C) Usability (D) Objectivity
method of teaching ?
Key : (D)
(A) Lecture and Dictation
3. The Government of India conducts Census
(B) Seminar and Project after every 10 years. The method of research
(C) Seminar and Dictation used in this process is
(D) Dictation and Assignment. (A) Case study (B) Developmental
Key : (B) (C) Survey (D) Experimental
3. Teacher uses teaching aids for Key : (C)
(A) Making teaching interesting 4. An academic association assembled at one
(B) Making teaching within understanding place to discuss the progress of its work and
level of students future plans. Such an assembly is known
(C) Making students attentive as a
(D) The sake of its use Key : (B) (A) Conference (B) Seminar
(C) Workshop (D) Symposium
4. Effectiveness of teaching depends on
Key : (A)
(A) Qualification of teacher
5. An investigator studied the census data for
(B) Personality of teacher
a given area and prepared a write-up based
(C) Handwriting of teacher on them. Such a write-up is called :
(D) Subject understanding of teacher (A) Research paper (B) Article
Key : (D) (C) Thesis (D) Research report
5. Which of the following is not characteristic Key : (B)
of a good question paper ?
III. Reading Comprehension
(A) Objectivity ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

(B) Subjectivity Read the following passage and answer the ques-
(C) No use of vague words tion Nos. 1 to 5
(D) Reliable Key : (B) The Constitution guarantees every citizen the fun-
damental right to equality. Yet after 50 years of
independence, just one perusal of the female in-
 UGC NET Paper-1 Specific  xiii
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

fant mortality figures, the literacy rates and the (B) Playing the card cautiously
employment opportunities for women is sufficient (C) Sabotaging all the moves by others
evidence that discrimination exists. Almost pre-
(D) Making the final jolt for success
dictably, this gender, bias is evident in our politi-
cal system as well. In the 13th Lok Sabha, there Key : (D)
were only 43 women MPs out of a total of 543; it is 4. The sentence “Men just don’t’ want to vote
not a surprising figure, for never has women’s their seats of power’ implies
representation in Parliament been more than (A) Lust for power
10 per cent.
(B) Desire to serve the nation
Historically, the manifestos of major political
parties have always encouraged women’s par- (C) Conviction in one’s own political
ticipation. It has been merely a charade. So, abilities
women’s organizations, denied a place on merit, (D) Political corruption Key : (A)
opted for the last resort: a reservation of seats for 5. What is the percentage of women in the Lok
women in parliament and State Assemblies. Par- Sabha ?
ties, which look at everything with a vote bank in
(A) 10 (B) 7.91
mind, seemed to endorse this. Alas, this too has a
mirage. (C) 43 (D) 9.1 Key : (B)
But there is another aspect also. At a time
IV. Communication
when caste is the trump card, some politicians ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
want the bill to include further quotas for women
1. Informal communication network within the
from among minorities and backward castes.
organization is known as
There is more to it. A survey shows that there is a
general antipathy towards the bill. It is actually a (A) Interpersonal Communication
classic case of doublespeak : in public, politicians (B) Intrapersonal Communication
were endorsing women’s reservation but in the (C) Mass Communication
backrooms of Parliament, they were busy sabo-
(D) Grapevine Communication Key : (D)
taging it. The reasons are clear : Men just don’t’
want to vacate their seats of power. 2. TV Channel launched for covering only
Engineering and Technology subjects is
1. The problem raised in the passage reflects
known as
badly on our
(A) Gyan Darshan (B) Vyas
(A) Political system
(C) Eklavya (D) Kisan Key : (C)
(B) Social behaviour
(C) Individual behaviour 3. In which state the maximum number of
periodicals are brought out for public
(D) behaviour of a group of people information
Key : (B) (A) Uttar Pradesh (B) Tamil Nadu
2. According to the passage, political parties (C) Kerala (D) Punjab Key : (C)
have mostly in mind
4. The main objective of public broadcasting
(A) Patriotism system i.e. Prasar Bharti is
(B) People’ welfare (A) Inform, Entertainment and Education
(C) Vote bank (B) Entertain, Information and Interaction
(D) Economic prosperity (C) Education, Interact and entertain
Key : (C)
(D) entertainment only Key : (A)
3. “Trump Card” means
5. The competency of an effective communica-
(A) Trying to move a dead horse tor can be judged on the basis of
xiv  UGC NET Paper-1 Specific
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(A) Personality of communicator the animals who both live on soil and in
water, which figure represents the relation-
(B) Experience in the field
ships among them.
(C) Interactivity with target audience
(D) Meeting the needs of target audience (A) (B)
Key : (D)

V. Reasoning (C) (D)

(Including Mathematical)
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Key : (D)
1. Which one of the following belongs to the 2. Of the following statements, there are two
category of homogeneous data statements both of which cannot be true but
(A) Multi-storeyed houses in a colony both can be false. Which are these two
statements ?
(B) Trees in a garden
(i) All machines make noise
(C) Vehicular traffic on a highway
(ii) Some machines are noisy
(D) Student population in a class
(iii) No machine makes noise
Key : (A)
(iv) Some machines are not noisy
2. In which of the following ways a theory is
(A) (i) and (ii) (B) (iii) and (iv)
not different from a belief ?
(C) (i) and (iii) (D) (ii) and (iv)
(A) Antecedent - consequent
(Key : (C)
(B) Acceptability
(C) Verifiability 3. In the following question a statement is
followed by two assumptions (i) and (ii). An
(D) Demonstrability Key : (B)
assumption is something supposed or taken
3. The state -- “Honesty is the best policy” is for granted. Consider the statement and the
(A) A fact (B) An value following assumptions and decide which
(C) An opinion of the following assumptions is implicit in
the statement.
(D) A value judgement
Statement : We need not worry about errors
Key : (D)
but must try to learn from our errors.
4. Which one is like pillar, pole and standard ? Assumptions :
(A) Beam (B) Plank (i) Errors may take place when we are
(C) Shaft (D) Timber Key : (A) carrying out certain work.
5. Following incomplete series is presented. (ii) We are capable of benefiting from the past
Find out the number which should come at and improve our chances of error-free
the place of question mark which will work.
complete the series : 4, 16, 36, 64 ? (A) Only assumption (i) is implicit
(A) 300 (B) 200 (B) Only assumption (ii) is implicit
(C) 100 (D) 150 Key : (C) (C) Either assumption (i) or (ii) is implicit
(D) Both the assumptions are implicit
VI. Logical Reasoning
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Key : (D)
1. The following question is based on the dia- 4. The question below is following by two
gram given below. If the two big circles rep- arguments numbered (i) and (ii). Decide
resent animals living on soil and those liv- which of the arguments is ‘strong’ an which
ing in water, and the small circle stands for is ‘weak’.
 UGC NET Paper-1 Specific  xv
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Should the press exercise some self- 2. Who has obtained the lowest average in
restraint ? aggregate ?
(i) Yes, they should not publish news items (A) W (B) X
which may incite the readers to indulge (C) Y (D) Z Key : (B)
in wrong practices.
3. Who has obtained the highest average ?
(ii) No, it is the responsibility of the press
to present the truth irrespective of the (A) W (B) X
consequences. (C) Y (D) Z Key : (A)
(A) Only the argument (i) is strong 4. In which paper the lowest marks were
(B) Only the argument (ii) is strong obtained by the candidates ?
(C) Neither argument (i) nor argument (ii) (A) I (B) II
is strong (C) III (D) IV Key : (B)
(D) Both the arguments (i) and (ii) are strong 5. Which candidate has secured the highest
Key : (A) percentage in the papers appeared
5. Study the argument and the inference (A) W (B) X
drawn from that argument, given below (C) Y (D) Z Key : (D)
carefully.
Argument : Anything that goes up definitely VIII. Information and
falls down. Helicopter goes up. Communication Technology (ICT)
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Inference : So the helicopter will definitely
fall down 1. ICT stands for
What in your opinion is the inference drawn (A) Information common technology
from the argument ? (B) Information and communication
(A) Valid (B) Invalid technology
(C) Doubtful (D) Long drawn one (C) Information and computer technology
Key : (D) (D) Inter connected technology
VII. Data Interpretation Key : (B)
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
2. Computer can
Four students W, X, Y, Z appeared in four papers, (A) Process both quantitative and qualita-
I, II, III and IV in a test. Their scores out of 100 are tive information
given below : (B) Store huge information
Students Papers (C) Process information and fast accurately
I II III IV
(D) All the above Key : (D)
W 60 81 45 55
X 59 43 51 A 3. Satellite Communication works through
Y 74 A 71 65 (A) Radar (B) Transponder
Z 72 76 A 68 (C) Receptor (D) Transmitter
Where ‘A’ stands for absent Key : (B)
Read the table and answer the questions 4. A computer is that machine which works
1 to 5. more like a human brain. This definition of
1. Which candidate has secured between 60- computer is
55 marks in aggregate ? (A) Correct (B) Incorrect
(A) W (B) X (C) Partially correct (D) None of the above
(C) Y (D) Z Key : (A) Key : (A)
xvi  UGC NET Paper-1 Specific
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

5. Information and communication technology (C) Pharmaceutical

includes (D) Aeronautical
(A) E-mail Key : (A)
(B) Internet 2. Which of the following is a Central
(C) Educational T.V. university?
(D) All the above Key : (D) (A) Mumbai University
IX. People and Environment (B) Calcutta University
1. It is believed that our globe is warning (C) Delhi University
progressively. This global warming will (D) Madras University Key : (C)
eventually result in 3. Identify the main principle on which the
(A) increase in availability of usable land. Parliamentary System operates.
(B) uniformity of climate at equator and (A) Responsibility of Executive to Legisla-
poles ture
(C) fall in the sea level (B) Supremacy of Parliament
(D) melting of polar ice. (C) Supremacy of Judiciary
Key : (D) (D) Theory of Separation of Power
2. In which parts of India ground water is Key : (A)
affected with arsenic contamination ?
4. The reservation of seats for women in the
(A) Haryana (B) Andhra Pradesh Panchayat Raj Institutions is
(C) Sikkim (D) West Bengal (A) 30% of the total seats
Key : (D)
(B) 33% of the total seats
3. Sunderban in Hooghly delta is known for (C) 33% of the total population
(A) Grasslands (B) Conifers (D) In proportion to their population.
(C) Mangroves (D) Arid forests Key : (B)
Key : (C)
5. Match List I with List II and select the correct
4. Sardar Sarover dam is located on the river answer from the code given below :
(A) Ganga (B) Godavari List I (Institutions) List II (Locations)
(C) Mahanadi (D) Narmada 1. Indian Veterinary (i) Pune
Key : (D) Research Institute
5. Which one of the following trees has 2. Institute of Armament (ii) Izat Nagar
medicinal value ? Technology
(A) Pine (B) Teak 3. Indian Institute of (iii) Delhi
(C) Neem (D) Oak Science
Key : (C) 4. National Institute for (iv) Bangalore
Educational planners
X. Higher Education System : and Administrators
Governance, Polity and
(A) 1 (ii), 2(i) 3(iv), 4(iii)
Administration
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ (B) 1 (ii), 2 (iv) 3 (ii), 4 (iii)
1. Which one of the following is not consid- (C) 1 (ii), 2 (iii) 3(i), 4 (iv)
ered a part of technical education in India? (D) 1 (iv), 2 (iii) 3 (ii), 4 (i) Key : (A)
(A) Medical
(B) Management
 SECTION

I
TEACHING APTITUDE

CONCEPT OF TEACHING
It is realized on all hands that education is important not only for the preservation and
transmission of culture but is also an important instrument in all spheres – Social,
Economic, Political and Vocational. But at present moment, preparation for vocation is
taken by many as the fundamental aim of education. Earning of livelihood has become
completely dependent upon education. Therefore, education is a complex social, cultural
and ethical process designed in a social or cultural context. It is very much related with
social structures, cultural environments, values and ideals of people, society and the
Government. These being dynamic factors because of which the definition of teaching has
been changing along with time, place and society.
In brief a proper definition of teaching should :
(i) identify whether teaching is a process or product
(ii) clearly indicate its constitutional factors
(iii) reveal objectives, and
(iv) say something about its organisational and structural aspect.
Definitions
1. According to Morrison, teaching is a disciplined social process in which teacher
influences the behaviour of the less experienced pupil and helps him develop ac-
cording to the needs and ideas of the society. Thus teaching is reduced to what the
teacher teaches.
2. Smith states that teaching is an organized system of specific activities aimed to
help the learner learn something. Teaching may be carried out in the absence of the
teacher. Smith further elaborated the definition. He considered teaching as a tripolar
process involving–
(i) agent or source producing learning which may be human or material,
(ii) a goal or target to be achieved, and
(iii) the intervening variables consisting of learning or teaching situation involv-
ing human or physical conditions and instructional methods.
3. Gage defined teaching as personal relationship between the teacher and the taught
causing behaviour modification.

(1)
2  UGC NET Paper-1 Specific
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

4. Amidon considered teaching as a process of interaction between the teacher and the taught
as a cooperative enterprise, a two-way traffic. This definition considered teaching as a set of
properly planned and clearly defined activities undertaken for the achievement of certain
objectives.
5. Clarke broadened the scope of teaching and included all those organised activities that may
result in modifying the behaviour of the learner.
The Nature of Teaching
In its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates learning. Teaching is the specialized
application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed to provide unique service to meet the
educational needs of the individual and of society. The choice of learning activities whereby the
goals of education are realized in the educational institution is the responsibility of the teaching
profession.
In addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet curriculum outcomes,
teaching emphasizes the development of values and guides students in their social relationships.
Teachers employ practices that develop positive self-concept in students. Although the work of
teachers typically takes place in a classroom setting, the direct interaction between teacher and
student is the single most important element in teaching.
If we consider its nature, teaching is:
(a) Dynamic, Social and Humane. Teaching is not a fundamental concept because it is greatly
influenced by social and human factors which are dynamic in themselves.
(b) Both, Art and Science. Teaching is both art and science. It calls for exercise of talent and
creativity making it an art and involving repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills which
can be studied systematically, described and improved making it science.
(c) Diverse in Application. In application, teaching is of diverse nature. It may have various
forms as formal, informal, directional, instructional, formational, training, conditioning, in-
doctrination, talking, showing, doing, remedial, etc.
Characteristics of Teaching
Characteristics of teaching may be described as :
(a) A system of actions. Teaching is a system of actions varied in form and related with content
and pupil behaviour under the prevailing physical and social conditions.
(b) A professional activity. It is a professional activity involving teacher and student with a view
to the development of students’ personality. Professionalism helps students in being regular
and making harmony with their objects towards those they are concentrated.
(c) Subjected to analysis and assessment. Teaching can be analysed and assessed and analysis
and assessment provide a feedback for further improvement.
(d) An interactive process. Teaching is highly dominated by the communication skill. Teaching is
an interactive process carried with purpose and objectives.
(e) A specialized task. It is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of skills for realization of
certain objectives.
(f) A collection of various modes. Teaching is a collection of various modes of itself. It is a broader
term. Terms like conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination denote a kind of teaching.
They are a part of teaching but not a synonym with teaching.
Objectives of Teaching
Major objectives of teaching are as follows :
 To bring desired changes in pupils.
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 To shape behaviour and conduct.

 Acquisition of knowledge
 To improve the learning skills of students.
 Formation of belief.
 To provide a social and efficient member to the society.
Educational objectives can cover a range of different types of intended learning outcomes.
A documentation from a respected Higher Education Funding Council lists the following: "The acqui-
sition of knowledge, the development of understanding and other general intellectual abilities, the
development of conceptual, intellectual and subject-specific skills, the development of generic or
transferable skills, and the development of values, of motivation or of attitudes".
These can be summarised in another way as follows:
 Personal transferable skills.
Includes inter-personal as well as personal skills; includes also most "Enterprise" compe-
tencies;
 Conceptual knowledge and skills.
Also known as "methodological"; e.g. critical thinking, writing, creativity, hypothesis de-
sign and testing, etc.
 Discipline-related knowledge and skills.
Subject knowledge and understanding. Subject specific skills (e.g. in lab).
 Attitudinal.
Values, motivation and attitudes.
There should be an appropriate balance between the effort devoted to each of these objectives.
Basic Requirements of Teaching
Teaching process involves following variables.
1. Dependent Variable. The student is a dependent variable. He is subjected to changes and
developments through the efforts of the teacher and teaching process. In the process of teach-
ing, the dependent variable plays the functional or active part.
2. Independent Variable. The teacher is an independent variable. He is responsible for the
functioning of students, the dependent variables. He is free to act in the process while students
are quite dependent on him. The teacher plans, organizes, leads and controls the process of
teaching. Like dependent variables, independent variables also play the functional or active
part.
3. Intervening Variables. There is need of desirable interaction between the dependent and
the independent variable to achieve the goals of teaching. This role is played by the inter-
vening variables. The content of teaching, methods and techniques, tactics and strategies
management of instructional material and teaching environments, etc., are the Intervening
Variables.
Basic requirements of teaching are
1. All the three variables of teaching
2. Professionalism
3. Suitable environment
4. Teacher-student relationship
5. Student’s discipline
6. Teacher’s devotion to teaching, and also on the other hand, student’s devotion to learning.
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Teaching as a Profession
Professionalism is a complex and elusive concept; it is dynamic and fluid. The certificated teacher is
the essential element in the delivery of instruction to students, regardless of the mode of instruction.
A teacher has professional knowledge and skills gained through formal preparation and experience.
Teachers provide personal, caring service to students by diagnosing their needs and by planning,
selecting and using methods and evaluation procedures designed to promote learning.
The processes of teaching include understanding and adhering to legal and legislated frameworks
and policies; identifying and responding to student learning needs; providing effective and responsive
instruction; assessing and communicating student learning; developing and maintaining a safe,
respectful environment conducive to student learning; establishing and maintaining professional
relationships; and engaging in reflective professional practice. These processes must be free of
discriminatory practices and should contribute to the holistic development of students who are
actively engaged, responsible and contributing members of a democratic society.

The Aim of Teaching

There are various modes of teaching. These include conditioning, training, instruction and indoctri-
nation. These are a kind of teaching (or a part of teaching, i.e., whole teaching process include all these)
but not a synonym with teaching. Some concepts related to various modes of teaching are as
follows:
1. Training helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills.
2. Distinction between training and education may be made through the evaluation of the degree
of intelligent behaviour produced by them.
3. Instruction and indoctrination work on a higher footing than conditioning and training as far
as the involvement of intellectual powers and modes of teaching are concerned. But they
cannot be equated with teaching.
4. Instruction is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding in an
individual which represents one of many objectives of education and teaching.
5. Teaching is aimed towards shaping a total man, while instruction aims only for the develop-
ment of intellect and affect the cognitive domain of behaviour. Teaching may include or cover
instruction.
6. Indoctrination represents a fairly high level of teaching, shaping beliefs and ideals. Indoctri-
nation may mean teaching but teaching can be done without indoctrination.
To summarize, the aims of teaching with respect to its various modes, are as follows :
 Teaching – To bring changes in the behaviour of students.
 Conditioning – To improve the learning skills of students.
 Training – Shaping the behaviour and conduct.
 Instruction – Acquisition of knowledge.
 Indoctrination – Formation of belief.

Four Modern Concepts of Teaching

1. Questioning. It is the most important device of teaching. It occurs in two ways:
(a) The teacher should ask questions of all types – introductory, developing and recapitulatory.
(b) In order that the students should be active participants in the lesson, they should be
trained to ask questions to the teachers.
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2. Discussion. Discussion clears the doubts of the students and enhances their ability of express-
ing opinions. For this purpose the class may be divided into groups. The teacher will direct
discussion in such a way that pupils will be encouraged to express their opinions freely and
independently. After the discussion, the teacher will classify the main points raised and sort
them out into some order.
3. Investigation. Investigation may be individual or group and includes the presentation of
information by the teacher. Investigation will be followed by expression which may be written,
spoken or visual and concrete.
4. Expression. This is the last step of teaching. It will be in the form of practical activities under
four headings :
(a) Passive
(b) Active
(c) Artistic
(d) Organisational Activities.

LEARNER’S CHARACTERISTICS
(i) Habit of Readiness. Learners should have habit of readiness. This habit is also known as law
of motivation. Woodworth calls it law of mental set. The teacher should arouse the attention
and interest of the students by asking suitable questions. Curiosity is indispensable for learn-
ing.
(ii) Habit of Exercise. “Practice makes a man perfect” is a well known proverb. This habit is also
known as law of practice or law of use and disuse.
(iii) Habit of Effect. It is also called the law of pleasure and pain or law of satisfaction and annoy-
ance. The activities which are associated with pleasure or satisfaction becomes more effective.
Activities which are associated with pain, punishment are not repeated and their strength is
decreased.
(iv) Attitudes and Habits. Learners must have good attitudes and habits. These can be formed in
children by the efforts of teacher and parents.
(v) Absence of anger and jealousy among learners. Emotion of anger and jealousy must be
removed from the learner’s personality, because they weaken the learning abilities.
(vi) Slow Beginning and Gradual Development. They should begin slowly but the process of
development must be continuous and gradual.

FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHING

Following factors affect teaching :
 All the three variables, i.e., dependent, independent and intervening variables;
 Teacher-student relationship;
 Methods of teaching used;
 Teacher-administration relationship; and
 The social environment.
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Clear Roles & Teacher Selection

ble ure Responsibilities & Training
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In Support Administrative
Technology Policies &
Faculty
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Workload
Ca ltim Intellectual
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Teaching
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Course Design Strategics
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 Student/teacher
relationships
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communication

METHODS OF TEACHING
Teaching is both, art and science. It requires a mastermind creativity that the students of different
nature and community should be handled carefully. Therefore, it is an art. On the other hand, it calls
for exercise of talent and creativity making it and involving repertoire of techniques, procedures and
skills which can be studied systematically, described and improved making it science.
A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction. Commonly used
teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or com-
binations of these. The choice of teaching method or methods to be used depends largely on the
information or skill that is being taught, and it may also be influenced by the aptitude and enthusiasm
of the students.

Methods of Instruction
Explaining. Explaining, or lecturing, is the process of teaching by giving spoken explanations of the
subject that is to be learned. Lecturing is often accompanied by visual aids to help students visualize
an object or problem.
Demonstrating. Demonstrating is the process of teaching through examples or experiments. For
example, a science teacher may teach an idea by performing an experiment for students. A
demonstration may be used to prove a fact through a combination of visual evidence and associated
reasoning.
Memorization of a list of facts is a detached and impersonal experience, whereas the same infor-
mation, conveyed through demonstration, becomes personally relatable. Demonstrations help to raise
student interest and reinforce memory retention because they provide connections between facts and
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real-world applications of those facts. Lectures, on the other hand, are often geared more towards
factual presentation than connective learning.
Collaborating. Collaboration allows students to actively participate in the learning process by talking
with each other and listening to other points of view. Collaboration establishes a personal connection
between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less personally biased way.
Group projects and discussions are examples of this teaching method. Teachers may employ collabo-
ration to assess student's abilities to work as a team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities.
Learning by teaching. In this teaching method, students assume the role of teacher and teach their
peers. Students who teach others as a group or as individuals must study and understand a topic well
enough to teach it to their peers. By having students participate in the teaching process, they gain self-
confidence and strengthen their speaking and communication skills. This is not a common practice in
India but is commonly followed in western institutions.
Successful teaching needs systematic planning and careful execution. Teaching is done in sequen-
tial steps. These steps are called the phases.
(i) Pre-Active phase. It is the planning phase.
(ii) Inter-Active Phase. It concerns with the implementation and carrying out what has been
planned. Therefore, it is a stage of actual teaching.
(iii) Post-Active Phase. This phase concerns with the evaluation activities which serves as feed-
back for improvement.
There are five steps involved in the method of teaching.
1. Preparation. The preparation stage is intended for the preparation of both the teacher and the
pupil. The teacher must know the level of learning of the children. The lesson may be introduced
and the pupils minds will prepare for the new lesson in a variety of ways. The teacher can ask
some appropriate questions in the previous lesson in order to connect it with the new lesson. He
may discuss some relevant topic in order to bring the new lesson in touch. He can also tell a story
to introduce the new topic. There are many ways, thus, which the teacher can utilise for the
introduction stage. However the introduction must necessarily be brief and it must create interest
in the pupils and stimulate their curiosity.
2. Presentation. This is the stage where the actual lesson begins. The teacher has to state the aim of
teaching the present class. The students can know what they are going to learn about. The
children should get themselves ready before they learn a new thing. The teacher’s statement of
aim helps the children for their readiness. Then the teacher presents the lesson. The materials are
carefully and skillfully arranged by the teacher. He may tell some reverent facts and deduce some
important principles from the lesson. He has to encourage the students to observe, compare and
contrast the facts presented to them. During this stage, whenever necessary, the teacher has to
write important facts on the blackboard. The difficult words or concepts have to be classified by
him. Use of charts, maps, graphs, diagrams, pictures, filmstrips, slides, etc., should be made if
available for clear understanding of the facts presented to them. The presentation stage must
consist of a great deal of mental activity on the part of the pupils.
The presentation rests in the principle of selection of the area to be covered. It is not necessary
for a teacher to cover up all areas of the courses of studies. He can leave some areas for pupil’s
own learning outside the school hours. A lesson may be presented either multiple sections or in
a consolidated section. The teacher should take care of controlling the classroom situation in
such a way that the lesson will be successful.
3. Comparison. This is the 3rd step of learning. The student is given opportunity to compare two
sets of facts. The selected facts are held up before the pupils and they are asked to observe them
and compare them with another set of facts. Hence the pupils observe and compare what was
given to them with the results obtained after going through a certain process.
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4. Generalisation. By observation and comparison various types of conclusions can be drawn.

These are systematized in a particular order to give a generalised truth. For instance, arriving at
a formula for finding simple interest, the discovery of a rule in science or framing of a definition
in grammar is what is done in the generalisation step of a lesson. Whenever the pupils do wrong
or do incomplete generalisations the teachers should help them. The most important thing in this
step is that pupils should understand the law or principle that they have discovered.
5. Application. Knowledge loses half its value unless it can be used in the discovery of further facts
and their application to new situations. Application is the step in which generalised truth on
knowledge obtained in a lesson is applied to life situations. This makes learning meaningful,
real and permanent. This application serves the purpose of revision and recapitulation of the
principles just learnt and may take a wide variety of form. The children may be tested orally or
may be given some practical work to do, or some constructive and creative exercise in which their
originality is needed.

Methods of Teaching According to different Schools of

Philosophy
There are four* broad philosophical schools of thought that apply to education today. They are
idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called experientialism), and existentialism. These four
general frameworks provide the root or base from which the various educational philosophies are
derived.
Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from the ancient
Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism.
Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality,
the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting,
the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind.
Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic.
Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal,
permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world
experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly.
This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived
as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian
society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable"
as an ideal.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through
lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students
discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to
bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed
through imitating examples and heroes.

* A fifth school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman Catholic schools in the educa-
tional philosophy called "Thomism". It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that
harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of truth. The Scholasticism movement
encouraged the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry
within a religious framework.
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Realism
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of
physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective - what can be observed. Aristotle,
a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism
and the scientific method. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be
able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the
ultimate purpose for humankind.
The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science
and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline,
demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and
basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think
critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifi-
cally approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through train-
ing in the rules of conduct.
Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century
American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists,
Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our
experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but
rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-
1914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to
indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He be-
lieved that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the
subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circum-
stance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a demo-
cratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character development is
based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and
projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to
focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies
of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real
situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and
future careers.
Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual stan-
dards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we
are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not
accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for
deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make
meaning of our lives.
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal
choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must
confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual re-
sponsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority.
Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences.
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“For existentialism what counts is personal contact not time-table.” The ancient Indian educators
advocated and experimented domestic system of education to give individual attention and treatment
to the students. In this system the personal touch, the living relationship between the Acharya and
Brahmachari constituted education. In a modern school, a teacher teaches a class and not the individu-
als with their differences. But in ancient India, the Acharya taught the individuals with their differ-
ences, not the class. For this they developed Gurukul System of education.
Methods of Teaching as recommended by Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)
(i) The commission suggested that methods of teaching should provide ample opportunities for
students to develop clear thinking and clear expression.
(ii) Individual-centred methods and opportunities for practical application of knowledge should
be adopted.
(iii) Activity method and project method should be used in school practice.
(iv) Establishing of Experimental and Demonstration schools and training in activities such as
scout movement, N.C.C., rovers and rangers, first aid should be encouraged.

Some Specific Methods of Teaching

1. Inferential Problem Solving Technique
Inductive and deductive are two important procedures of systematic approaches to problem solving.
Steps in Inductive Method Steps in Deductive Method
(i) Recognition of the problem (i) Recognition of problem
(ii) Searching for data (ii) Searching for data
(iii) Organisation of data (iii) Reviewing
(iv) Framing tentative solutions (iv) Formulation of inferences
(v) Elimination (v) Verification
(vi) Verification
2. Team-Teaching
Team-teaching is also called co-operative teaching. This is a recent idea in the field of education.
M.B. Naik said, “In a team-teaching method, two or more teachers make a plan of the subjects co-
operatively, carry it out, and always evaluate its effects on the students periodically.” In team teach-
ing, subject teachers give lectures to a big class. On every working, all the members of the team have a
common assembly. Here they discuss the methods used by the fellow-teachers.
3. Micro-Teaching
Micro-teaching is an innovative teaching technique. It is a new development in the field of teaching.
The term micro-teaching was first coined by Dwight Allen of the Stanford University in 1963.
Features of micro-teaching
(i) It is a teacher training technique.
(ii) It focuses on developing teaching skills.
(iii) It reduces the classes size in five to ten students.
(iv) The size of the topic is also reduced.
(v) Micro-teaching is a highly individualized training skill.
(vi) It provides feedback for trainee’s performance.
(vii) It is an effective device to prepare competent teachers.
(viii) In this technique learners are provided with immediate knowledge of the correctness of response.
Steps in Micro-teaching
(i) Defining the skill (ii) Demonstrating the skill
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(iii) Planning the lesson (iv) Teaching the lesson

(v) Discussion (vi) Replanning
(vii) Re-teaching (viii) Rediscussion
(ix) Repeating the cycle till the desired level of skill is achieved.
4. Question-Answer technique in teaching
No teacher of elementary or secondary subjects can succeed in his instruction who has not a fair
mastery of the art of questioning.
Purposes of questioning:
(i) To test the knowledge (ii) To locate the difficulty
(iii) To arouse motivation (iv) To secure active participation of students.
(v) To apply knowledge (vi) To recapitulate the lesson learnt.
(vii) To promote thinking and originality (viii) To increase self confidence
(ix) To maintain discipline (x) To promote intellectual and social development.
Underlying the need of questioning Parkar said, “Questioning is the key to all educative
activities.”

TEACHING AIDS
A teaching aid is something a classroom teacher uses in her class to help students improve reading
and other skills, reinforce a skill, or to make learning fun. Teaching aids can be used in any of the core
classes. There are several types of teaching aids to be utilized in a classroom.
Chart. A chart is something that shows a group of facts in the form of a diagram, table, or a graph.
Charts can be large enough to mount on a wall. Wall charts can be used for whole group lessons; the
teacher can write an outline or word definitions on the wall chart.
Flash Cards. A flash card is part of a set of cards that has numbers, letters, pictures or words on it.
They are commonly used for drilling students on facts. Flash cards may also be used to enhance
student memory.
Flip Charts. Flip charts are useful for teaching large groups at one time. A flip chart is a large group of
papers that are attached at the top so that the papers can be flipped over one at a time to show a new
page of paper. Flip charts are often placed on an easel, which allows the teacher to easily move it. A
teacher can use a flip chart when she is showing different parts of a lesson, stages in the process of
something, steps of something, or the progress of a story as it unfolds. Flip charts are very versatile
and can be used for all classes.
Maps. Maps are something teachers can use for various projects or lessons. A map is something to
use when a teacher is describing where a city, state, country, or continent is located. Teachers can
show students different types of terrain, the population of a specific state or country, or the amount of
precipitation in various areas. Maps are great for social studies and science and give students a great
understanding of spatial relations.
Newspapers. Many teachers may not know that a newspaper is a great teaching aid. Teachers can use
them to teach about people, places and things in language arts. Newspapers can be used for math
activities, such as clipping coupons and doing basic math. A teacher can use a newspaper for finding
parts of speech, teaching about life skills, or to keep students current on news events.
Graphs. Graphs are a wonderful teacher’s aid and can be used for any subject. Teachers can make their
own graphs and use them to compare population growth in social studies, numbers or ratios of objects
in math class, or even use them for charting student growth. Teachers can make their own graphs using
computer programs or can choose to go the old-fashioned way and use graph paper.
12  UGC NET Paper-1 Specific

Surveys. These are another great teaching aid. Teachers can make their own survey to pass out to the
class. On that survey, the teacher may ask the students to answer yes, no, multiple choice, or short
answer questions regarding a recent teaching unit, the overall performance of the teacher or the school
in general. Surveys are a great way for a teacher to get feedback and use that feedback to improve
teaching skills or change future lessons for more success!
Teaching aids can add to lessons, show students specifics of the lesson, or improve basic skills.
There are so many teaching aids available to teachers today; the possibilities are endless.

Audio-Visual Aids
Audio-visual aids are different types of tools that appeal to the sense of learning & vision and are used
in classrooms for presentation of abstract information. As most of the learning takes place through the
senses, so these aids ensure quick and effective learning.
Multimedia approach to educational instruction is the methodology based on the principle that a
variety of audio-visual media and experiences corrected with other instructional materials overlap
and reinforce the value of each other.
Advantages
(i) They make class room teaching effective.
(ii) They make learning easy.
(iii) They make use of more sensory organs.
(iv) They create interest and motivate students.
Principles of Audio-Visual Aids
(i) Principle of fulfillment of objectives (ii) Principle of selection
(iii) Principle of effectiveness
Emphasis is now laid on the use of audio-visual aids in teaching because of their multifarious
values in making the teaching learning process interesting and effective. But wrong use of these aids
will invite adverse criticism. So precautions must be taken while selecting and using these aids.

VICARIOUS
LEARNING
IN

THROUGH WORDS
CR

AND SYMBOLS
EA

(Abstract representations
SIN

of reality)
GL

Mathematical models, formulae,

T

YC
AC

equations, speech writing

ON
TR

CR
BS
YA

ET
E
GL

VICARIOUS LEARNING
IN

THROUGH AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS

S

(Mechanical representations of reality)

EA

Charts, graphs, pictures, slides, film strips,

CR

specimens, models, films, television

IN

DIRECT LEARNING THROUGH FIRST HAND

EXPERIENCES
(Immediate sensory contacts with reality)
Exhibits, centred experiences, demonstrations, projects,
laboratory work, excursions, field trips, environmental encounters
 UGC NET Paper-1 Specific  13
Guidelines for Selection of Audio-Visual Aids
1. The aids should be integrated with learning. It should be appropriate to the curriculum and
not be merely recreational.
2. Select the aids most suited to the communication objective, the location, and the composition
and size of the audience.
3. It should be according to the intelligence and experiences of the students.
4. The language should be familiar and understandable to the pupils.
5. It should be motivational and highly informative. The aid used should attract and capture the
attention of pupils.
6. Make sure that the audience will be able to see and hear clearly. Audio cassettes that cannot be
heard or words on a board that are too small to be seen can make the audience restless and
inattentive, and even start talking amongst themselves.
Types of Audio-visual Aids
For the sake of convenience aids can be divided into the following categories :
1. Visual aids. These include.
(i) Chalk board.
(ii) Charts, diagrams, sketches, models etc.
(iii) Motion pictures, film strips and slides.
(iv) Flannel graph and Bulletin board.
2. Auditory aids. These include :
(i) Radio (ii) Audio players etc.
3. Audio-visual aids. These include :
(i) Films (Sound motion pictures)
(a) Classroom films, (b) Industrial films, (c) Institution-made films, (d) Documentary films
(ii) Television
4. Information and Educational Technology.

EVALUATION SYSTEMS
Evaluation is defined as a process of collecting evidences of behavioural changes and judging the
directions and extents of such changes. This means that evaluation is free neither from instructional
objectives nor from the teaching-learning. In fact, it is closely related to objectives and learning activi-
ties on the one hand, and improvement of instructions on the other. The desired changes in students
represent the purpose or end of instruction, while the evaluation procedures and learning experiences
provided to children are the instruments or means related to these ends. The relationship between
educational objectives, learning experiences and evaluation techniques can be represented as follows:

Objectives

Learning Evaluation Procedures

Experiences (tools & techniques)
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