DISCUSSIONS AND OBSERVATIONS

Exercise 1: Plotting Specific Signals

1) Continuous-Time (CT) Signals

The following were the results after running the codes for the continuous-time signals

1.Signum function
From the graph above for the signum function, it can be observed that the graph
jumps to +1 for positive values of the signal, but dips to -1 for the negative values of
the signal. This implies that the signum function is used to show whether a signal is
positive or negative. The word itself “signum” comes from a latin word meaning
‘mark,’ what else do you think it shows if not the sign of a signal(positive or negative)?
It
is an odd mathematical function which extracts the sign of a real number.
The signum function usually satifies the following conditions;
 If the number is positive, the function returns 1 (.sgn(t)=1 for t > 0)
 If the number is zero, it returns 0.(sgn(t)=0 for t = 0)
 If the number is negative, it returns -1 (sgn(t)=−1for t < 0)
These conditions basically proves the math representing the signum function,
Thus the lab was a success as this was proved.
Application(s) of signum function
 Detecting the change of signs
 Zero crossing

2. Rectangular function
Observing the graph of the rectangular function above ,it is seen that the signal is
rectangular shaped . We can see that the height of that rectangle is one, and if a centre
line is to be drawn that cuts the rectangle in the middle( along its width), it passes
through t=0.The rectangular signal is also known as the unit pulse. Also, the
rectangular function is an even function of time because it satisfies the condition:
x(t)=x(-t)
Mathematically, the unit rectangular signal is defined as,

The signal graphed basically just proves this, hence this was a success.
Application(s) of rectangular function
 Systems use rectangular pulses as the base shape for sending bits over a channel.

3.Triangular function:
Again here ,it is so clear that the graphed signal took the shape of a triangular
signal .The triangular signal is also an even function of time as observed as well, it
satisfies that same condition to be an even signal.
Mathematically , it satifies:
This was also successfully verified.
Application(s) of triangular functions
 Used in signal analysis system as it is has certain frequency analysis properties
which makes it a useful function. This include tasks like filtering and
interpolation of signals in communication.
4..Sinc function: sinc(t)
From my plots above, the sinc function shows a clear central peak at t = 0, where its
value is 1. The oscillations diminish symmetrically on either side of t=0 verifying that
it is an even function.
Mathematically, it is defined as;

So , all the functions for the CT signals were a success.

The advantage(s) of Sinc Function
 Its even symmetric nature along with its oscillating property is very useful which
is applied in various modulation schemes
.
The disadvantage(s) of Sinc Function
 It oscillates between negative and positive infinity without dropping amplitude to
0. This can be a major problem when using it in computer applications due to
infinite support.

Application(s) of Sinc Function

 Used in signal analysis system as it is has certain frequency analysis properties
which makes it a useful function. This include tasks like filtering and
interpolation of signals in communication.
This code implementation was a success.

2) Discrete time (D.T) signals

The following were the results after running the codes for the discrete-time signals

1. Impulse function

From the above graph for the impulse function , it’s observed that impulse function
has only one nonzero value at the origin, which is equal to 1.That’s why it’s called a
unit impulse function. Otherwise all zeros. We see a small dot at every point to show
that the height is either zero or finite value of 1, at n = 0.
Mathematically , this function is ;

This was a success.

Application(s) of impulse function
By using the impulse function as an input, it helps in deriving the impulse response
of a system, this helps in understanding how systems process different signals.
2. Step function
This function suddenly rises to one and remains the same from n = 0 to positive
values.
By observation , the step function is 0 for negative values of its argument and 1 for
the positive values of its argument.We see little dots at the top of each bar of
magnitude one and zero showing that the function exists at only integer values and it
is bounded for all values of n, as shown in the graph above.
Mathematically;

;
This was implemented successfully.
Application(s) of step function
Can be used for modelling sudden changes in a system, such as a switching
system ,that is , turning it on and off.
3. Square impulse function

It is observed that the amplitude of the signal remains one from n=0 to n= 5,
otherwise it’s 0.This creates a ‘block’ or ‘pulse’ shape in the discrete domain.This
observation satisfies the definition of a square impulse function; it usually remains
constant at 1 for a given amount of time.
Mathematically ;

The lab was a success.

Application(s) of square impulse function
Can be used in modelling time-limited signals since they remain constant for limited
amount time .
4. Discrete exponential function
 As shown in the Discrete Exponential plot, the real part oscillates between
positive and negative values. This signal maintains a constant magnitude of 1,
indicating that it’s tracing out points on the unit circle in the complex plane. The
periodicity in the real part is evident.
Mathematically ;

This was successful.

5. Discrete cosine function

It can be observed that the discrete cosine and the discrete exponential functions are
Identical.They have the same frequencies
Mathematically;

This was satisfied , hence success.

This Exercise 1: Plotting Specific Signals, was a success , the D-T and C-T plots
confirmed the theoretical and mathematical description. I understood most of them
clearly.
Exercise 2: Frequency Analysis Using Subplots
1. DiscreteCosine
Frequency Analysis of Discrete Cosine Signal
Below were the output of the codes after running them on MATLAB;

The above are subplots since they are just smaller plots of a larger figure, they help in
comparison and analysis .
Now , it’s observable that the top subplot is a discrete cosine signal with k=2 and the
downer one is a cosine function with l = 8, but again the difference in the values of k
and l doesn’t mean one has a higher frequency than the other.We can observe that the
two signals are identical, which implies symmetrical frequency.

This is Due to the periodic nature of discrete signals, l=8 is equivalent to k= −2,
meaning both signals represent the same frequency component but in different forms
(negative and positive). This demonstrates frequency symmetry in the discrete domain.
Mathematically ;
k +l = N that is 8+2=10,
verifying the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) symmetry properties.
This was successfully implemented.
2. Discrete Exponential
Frequency Analysis of Discrete Exponential Signals
After successfully running the code for discrete exponential signals in MATLAB,
the output were as shown below;
 This is very similar to the previous analysis of the discrete cosine signal.As
observed the values of k and l differ , but not frequency .The two signals are similar
visually, thus symmetrical frequency.Since k + l= N, this implies that l=8 is just
another way of writing k = -2, which is actually the same frequency but in a
different form. This shows DFT symmetry, where certain frequencies repeat and
appear mirrored.
Mathematically, it was successful.

Exercise 3: Inner Products and Energy

1. Inner product
The following were the result after running the code in MATLAB vs by hand
calculation respectively;
For descrete-time
The results of D.T inner product by hand was exactly =0, while the one for
MATLAB was -0.0000000000000001 which is very close to 0, the difference
comes in that floating-point arithmetic in MATLAB can produce tiny residual, but
it’s just zero.
The MATLAB result, which is effectively 0, confirms the orthogonality property.
Therefore this lab was successful.
For continuous-time
In MATLAB and by hand respectively;

In MATLAB , this was exactly =0,the same as the hand calculations.

The MATLAB result, which is effectively 0, confirms the orthogonality property.
Therefore this lab was successful.
 2. Energy and Power
By hand;

Both energy and power of the signal x(t) = sin(2πt), are both 0.5 , and this was
verified by the running the codes as well as shown below;
And power ;

This was a success .

3. Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality
According to the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality in an inner product space, we must
have;

The code confirmed the inequality was satisfied since output = 1 for both the CT
and DT signals,

indicating that our numerical computations are consistent with the theoretical
properties of inner product spaces.
Hence this was a success.
Exercise 4: System Classifications

1. Linearity and Time-Invariance

Linearity
A system is said to be linear if it holds the superposition theory, that is both;
 Additivity (i.e., y1+y2=y)
 Homogeneity (or Scaling) (i.e y=ky1)
For both the systems y(t) = x(t) + x(t-1) in CT and y[n] = x[n] + x[n-1] in DT,
linearity fails because it doesn’t satisfy the two conditions here. The MATLAB code
verified this part by displaying
0;

This was a success.

Time-Invariance
A system is called time-invariant if a time shift (delay or advance) in the input signal
causes the same time shift in the output signal, thus there is no change in the shape of
the output signal if there is time shift.
Mathematically;
 y(t − t0)=h(x(t − t0)). for CT signals
 y[n −n0]=h[x[n−n0]]. for DT signals
Now this was not the case here ;
The presence of the shifted term (x(t−1) for CT or x[n−1] for DT causes the system's
output to vary depending on the input's time shift, thus the system is NOT time-
invariant. The MATLAB code verified this by displaying 0
This was a successful.
2. Causality and Stability
Causality
By definition, the output of a causal system at the present time depends on only the
present and/or past values of the input, not on its future values. Therefore , all
memoryless systems are causal,though not vice varsa. Responses cannot come before
the signals in causal systems. Mathematically, the signal in question here;

Both of them both for CT and DT depends on the past inputs, because of the
presence of negative infinity. So the summation all leads to dependence on past inputs,
and then the presence of both t and k also shows dependence on present inputs, thus it
is a causal system.
This was verified by our MATLAB code as it returned 1 for both CT and DT signals;

This was successfully verified.

Stability
By definition, a BIBO stable system produces bounded outputs for bounded
inputs.Mathematically an input |x(t)| ≤ b leads to are corresponding output |y(t)| ≤ c ,
where c and b are finite for CT signals , or |x[n]| ≤ b leads to |y[n]| ≤ c , for DT signals.
In our case here ,the CT system's energy is finite, and the DT system's energy is also
finite, as verified by our energy calculations. Hence, both systems are stable.
After running the code on MATLAB , this was verified as it returned 1;

Thus our lab was a success in everything.

Additional Questions
Question 1 : Hand Calculations for Inner Products

In the previous exercise 3, I have analyzed this inner product of CT signals and
compared them to the generated code results, they are one and the same, refer back to
excersize three.This is proven.
Question 2: Energy and Power Calculations
The energy calculations by the code for both DT and CT signals were as shown;

And power calculations by the codes;

Now comparing these code results by hand as shown in the next pages, the results for
CT signals both energy and power were both 0.5, which aligns with these code
results .Also for DT signals, energy was 5 as confirmed by code results above and
proven by hand calculations below in the following pages.
Energy and power calculations for CT signals
Energy and power calculations for DT signals

All these were verified , hence the lab was successful.

Question 3: Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality

As confirmed by the codes below by returning 1, Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality hold
and that’s confirmed below respectively by code and by hand;
Question 4: System Classifications
For this additional exercise; I have already classified the system comprehensively in
The exercise 4 part of this lab report .The coderesults are;

This part was successfully implemented.

Question 5: Frequency Analysis

I have done a comprehensive analysis of the frequencies of these signals in Exercise 2:
Frequency Analysis Using Subplots and even stated and explained why k and l differ
and the frequency remains the same. So repeating all that will be a repetition. This
was successfully verified.