MEASUREMENT AND EXPERIMENTATION

1. Physical Quantities
• Definition: Quantities that can be measured and expressed in terms of
a number and a unit.
• Types:
o Fundamental Quantities (Cannot be derived): e.g. Length, Mass,
Time, Temperature, Electric current, Luminous intensity,
Amount of substance.
o Derived Quantities (Derived from fundamental ones): e.g. Speed,
Area, Volume, Density.
2. Units of Measurement
• Unit: Standard quantity used to express a physical quantity.
• Types of Units:
o Fundamental Units: e.g. metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s)
o Derived Units: e.g. m², m³, m/s, kg/m³
• SI Units (International System of Units):
o Length – metre (m)
o Mass – kilogram (kg)
o Time – second (s)
o Temperature – kelvin (K)
o Electric current – ampere (A)
o Luminous intensity – candela (cd)
o Amount of substance – mole (mol)
3. Measurement of Length
• Instruments:
o Metre Scale (least count: 1 mm)
 o Vernier Calipers:
▪ Measures up to 0.01 cm or 0.1 mm
▪ Used for internal/external diameter and depth
▪ Formula:
Least Count = (1 MSD - 1 VSD)
Reading = Main Scale + (Vernier Coincidence × Least
Count)
o Screw Gauge:
▪ Least Count: 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm
▪ Formula:
▪ Least Count = Pitch / No. of divisions on circular
scale
▪ Reading = Main Scale + (Circular scale reading ×
L.C.)
▪ Use: Thickness of wire, diameter of small sphere
• Zero Error: When the instrument reads a value when it should be zero.
Must be corrected.
4. Measurement of Mass
• Common Instruments:
o Beam Balance
o Electronic Balance (used in labs and shops)
• SI Unit: kilogram (kg)
• Smaller units: gram (g), milligram (mg)
5. Measurement of Time
• Devices:
o Stop Watch (analogue/digital)
o Pendulum Clock
 • SI Unit: second (s)
• 1 minute = 60 seconds, 1 hour = 3600 seconds
6. Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy: How close a measured value is to the actual value.
• Precision: How close measured values are to each other
(reproducibility).
• Errors:
o Systematic Errors: Constant errors due to faulty instruments.
o Random Errors: Caused by unknown and unpredictable
variations.
o Human Errors: Due to parallax, wrong readings.
• Reducing Errors: Take multiple readings and use better instruments.
7. Significant Figures
• Reflect the precision of a measurement.
• Rules:
1. All non-zero digits are significant.
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
3. Leading zeros are not significant.
4. Trailing zeros in decimal numbers are significant.
8. Use of Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge (Experimentation)
• Precautions:
o Check for zero error.
o Take multiple readings.
o Hold object firmly but gently.
• Applications:
 o Vernier Calipers: Measure external diameter of test tube, internal
diameter of hollow cylinder.
o Screw Gauge: Measure diameter of wire, thickness of paper.
9. Simple Pendulum (Experiment)
• Time Period (T): Time taken for one oscillation.
• Formula:
T=2π √(l/g)
• where:
o T = time period
o l = length of pendulum
o g= acceleration due to gravity (≈ 9.8 m/s²)
• Factors affecting T:
o Directly proportional to square root of length.
o Independent of mass and amplitude (for small angles).
• Graph: Plot of T^2 vs l is a straight line.
10. Common Graphs in Experimentation
• Linear relationships (e.g., T2T^2 vs ll in pendulum).
• Learn to plot, label axes, and understand slope and intercept.

ICSE Board-style questions from the past papers

SECTION A: Fill in the Blanks

1. The basic unit of time in SI system is __________.
Ans: second
2. The screw gauge is used to measure the __________ of a wire.
Ans: diameter
3. A simple pendulum performs __________ motion.
Ans: periodic
 4. The least count of a standard metre scale is __________ cm.
Ans: 0.1 cm
5. One complete oscillation is the motion between __________.
Ans: one extreme to the other and back
SECTION B: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Which instrument is best suited to measure the thickness of a thin wire?
a) Metre scale
b) Vernier calipers
c) Screw gauge
d) Beam balance
Ans: c) Screw gauge
2. The SI unit of mass is:
a) gram
b) kilogram
c) milligram
d) tonne
Ans: b) kilogram
3. Which of the following quantities is derived?
a) Time b) Mass c) Area d) Length
Ans: c) Area
4. The pitch of a screw is 1 mm and it has 100 divisions. The least count is:
a) 0.1 mm
b) 1 mm
c) 0.01 mm
d) 10 mm
Ans: c) 0.01 mm
SECTION C: True or False
 1. The time period of a pendulum depends on its mass.
Ans: False
2. Vernier calipers can measure both internal and external diameters.
Ans: True
3. The least count of a screw gauge is always 1 mm.
Ans: False
4. The unit of acceleration due to gravity is m/s².
Ans: True
5. One complete oscillation is from mean to one extreme position.
Ans: False
SECTION D: Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark each)
1. What is the formula for calculating the least count of a screw gauge?
Ans: Least Count = Pitch / Number of circular scale divisions
2. Name two fundamental quantities.
Ans: Length and time
3. Which part of a screw gauge holds the object?
Ans: The jaws (anvil and spindle)
4. What is meant by pitch?
Ans: Distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation
SECTION E: Short Answer Questions (2–3 marks)
1. Define a physical quantity. Give two examples.
Ans: A physical quantity is one that can be measured.
Examples: Time, mass
2. Write any two differences between accuracy and precision.
Ans:
o Accuracy: Closeness to true value
o Precision: Reproducibility of repeated measurements
3. A screw gauge has a pitch of 0.5 mm and 50 divisions. What is the least
count?
 Ans:
LC=0.550=0.01 mm
SECTION F: Long Answer Questions (4–5 marks)
1. Explain how the time period of a simple pendulum can be calculated
using an experiment.
Ans:
o Suspend the pendulum freely.
o Displace and release from small angle.
o Use a stopwatch to time 20 oscillations.
o Time period T=Total time20T = \frac{\text{Total time}}{20}
2. Describe with a diagram the parts of a vernier calipers and explain how
it is used to measure the length of a small object.
Ans:
o Parts: Main scale, vernier scale, inside and outside jaws, depth
rod
o Process:
1. Place object between jaws
2. Note main scale reading
3. Find vernier scale division that coincides
4. Use formula:
Total reading=MSR+(VSR×LC)
 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
1. Motion
• Definition: A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with
time.
• Rest: A body is at rest if it does not change its position with time.
2. Types of Motion
• Translatory Motion: When a body moves in a straight line or along a
curved path (e.g., car moving on a road)
o → Rectilinear Motion (straight line)
o → Curvilinear Motion (curved path)
• Rotational Motion: A body rotates about its axis (e.g., spinning top).
• Oscillatory/Vibratory Motion: To and from motion about a mean
position (e.g., pendulum).
3. Distance and Displacement

Quantity Distance Displacement

Definition Total path covered Shortest path between two points

Type Scalar Vector

Value Always positive Can be positive, negative, or zero

4. Speed and Velocity

Quantity Speed Velocity

Definition Distance/time Displacement/time

Type Scalar Vector

Formula v=dtv = \frac{d}{t} v=stv = \frac{s}{t}

Uniform Constant speed Constant direction + magnitude

Quantity Speed Velocity

Non-uniform Changing speed Changing direction or magnitude

5. Acceleration
• Definition: Rate of change of velocity.
• Formula: a=(v−u)/t
where:
o a = acceleration
o u = initial velocity
o v = final velocity
o t= time taken
• Unit: m/s²
• Types:
o Positive Acceleration: Speed increases
o Negative Acceleration (Retardation): Speed decreases
o Uniform Acceleration: Constant rate of velocity change
6. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion
1. v = u + at
2. s=ut+1/2at^2
3. v^2 = u^2 + 2as
where:
• s = displacement
• t= time
• Other symbols as defined above.
7. Graphical Representation
(i) Distance-Time Graph
 • Uniform Speed: Straight line
• Non-uniform Speed: Curved line
• Slope of graph = Speed
(ii) Velocity-Time Graph
• Uniform Acceleration: Straight line sloping upwards
• Uniform Retardation: Straight line sloping downwards
• Area under the graph = Displacement
• Slope = Acceleration
8. Units and Dimensions

Quantity SI Unit

Distance metre (m)

Speed/Velocity m/s

Acceleration m/s²

Time second (s)

9. Uniform and Non-uniform Motion

Motion Type Description

Uniform Equal distances in equal intervals

Non-uniform Unequal distances in equal intervals

10. Numerical Values

• Acceleration due to gravity g=9.8 m/s2g = 9.8 \, m/s^2 (not always
included in this chapter but may appear)
11. Key Concepts Summary
• Scalar quantities: Distance, Speed, Time
• Vector quantities: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration
 • Acceleration = change in velocity/time
• Velocity can be zero even when speed is constant (e.g., in circular
motion – not in this chapter, but good to know)

Numericals: Motion in One Dimension

Formulae Recap
1. v = u + at
2. s=ut+1/2at^2
3. v^2 = u^2 + 2as
4. Speed=Distance/Time
5. Acceleration=(v−u)/t
1. A car starts from rest and attains a velocity of 20 m/s in 10 seconds. Find
the acceleration.
Given:
u=0 m/s
v=20 m/s
t=10 s
Formula:
a=(v−u)/t
= (20−0)/10=20/10=2 m/s^2

Answer: 2 m/s²
2. A bus is moving with uniform acceleration of 1.5 m/s². Find the velocity
after 8 seconds if the initial velocity was 4 m/s.
Given:
u=4 m/s
a=1.5 m/s^2
t=8 s
Formula:
v=u+at=4+(1.5×8)=4+12=16 m/s
 Answer: 16 m/s
3. A train starting from rest travels 100 m in 10 s. Find the acceleration and
final velocity.
Given:
u=0
s=100 m
t=10 s
(i) Acceleration:
Use: s=ut+1/2at^2
100=0+1/2a(10)^2⇒100=1/2a(100)⇒a=200/100=2 m/s^2
(ii) Final velocity:
v=u+at=0+(2×10)=20 m/s

Answer: Acceleration = 2 m/s², Final velocity = 20 m/s

4. A car moving with a speed of 25 m/s is stopped by applying brakes,
producing a uniform retardation of 5 m/s². Find the time taken to stop and the
distance travelled.
Given:
u=25 m/s
v=0 m/s
a=−5 m/s^2
(i) Time taken to stop:
v=u+at⇒0=25−5t⇒t=25/5=5 s
(ii) Distance travelled:
s=ut+12at2=25×5+12(−5)(5)2=125−1252=62.5 m

Answer: Time = 5 s, Distance = 62.5 m

5. A body is dropped from a height and falls freely under gravity. Find the
distance it covers in 3 seconds. (Take g = 9.8 m/s²)
Given:
u=0
a=9.8 m/s^2,
t=3 st = 3 \, s
s=ut+12at2=0+12×9.8×(3)2=12×9.8×9=44.1 m

Answer: 44.1 m
6. A particle starts with a velocity of 5 m/s and accelerates at 0.5 m/s². How far
does it travel in 12 seconds?
Given:
u=5 m/s
a=0.5 m/s^2
t=12 s
s=ut+1/2at^2 =5×12+12×0.5×(12)2=60+0.25×144=60+36=96 m

Answer: 96 m

LAWS OF MOTION
1. Force
• Definition: A push or a pull which changes or tends to change the state
of an object.
• SI Unit: Newton (N)
• Vector quantity: Has both magnitude and direction.
2. Effects of Force
Force can:
• Change the speed of an object
• Change the direction of motion
• Change the shape or size
• Start or stop motion
3. Types of Forces
 1. Contact Forces
o e.g. Friction, Tension, Normal force, Air resistance, Muscular
force
2. Non-Contact Forces (Action at a distance)
o e.g. Gravitational force, Electrostatic force, Magnetic force
4. Inertia
• Definition: The tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of
motion.
• Types:
1. Inertia of Rest
2. Inertia of Motion
3. Inertia of Direction
5. Newton's Laws of Motion

First Law (Law of Inertia)

• Statement: A body remains in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless an external force acts on it.
• Example: A passenger lunges forward when a bus suddenly stops.

Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

• Statement: The force applied on a body is directly proportional to the
rate of change of its momentum.
• Mathematical Form:
F=m⋅a
where
F = force,
m = mass,
a = acceleration
• Momentum (p): p=m⋅v
 • SI unit: Newton (N)

Third Law (Action-Reaction Law)

• Statement: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Example: Gun recoils when a bullet is fired.
6. Linear Momentum
• Definition: Product of mass and velocity
p=m⋅v
• SI Unit: kg·m/s
• Vector Quantity
7. Law of Conservation of Momentum
• Statement: The total momentum of a system remains conserved if no
external force acts on it.
• Formula:
m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+m2v2
Where:
u1,u2= initial velocities,
v1,v2= final velocities,
m1,m2= masses
8. Friction
• Definition: A force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces
in contact.
• Types:
1. Static friction
2. Sliding friction
3. Rolling friction
• Advantages:
o Walking is possible
 o Objects can be held
• Disadvantages:
o Causes wear and tear
o Wastes energy
• Ways to reduce friction:
o Lubrication
o Use of ball bearings
o Streamlining
9. Impulse
• Definition: Product of force and time for which the force acts.
Impulse=F⋅t=Δp
• SI Unit: N·s (same as momentum)
10. Applications of Laws of Motion
• Seat belts in cars (inertia)
• Jumping from a boat (reaction)
• Kicking a football (acceleration)
• Rocket propulsion (action–reaction)

Numericals
Q1. A force of 20 N acts on a body of mass 5 kg. Find the acceleration
produced.
Solution: F=m⋅a⇒a=F/m=20/5=4 m/s^2

Q2. What force is required to produce an acceleration of 3 m/s² in a body of

mass 10 kg?
Solution: F=m⋅a=10×3=30 N

Q3. Find the momentum of a body of mass 2 kg moving with velocity 4 m/s.
Solution: p=m⋅v=2×4=8 kg.m/s
Q4. A body of mass 1.5 kg changes its velocity from 10 m/s to 4 m/s. Find
the change in momentum.
Solution:
Initial momentum =1.5×10=15 kg.m/s
Final momentum =1.5×4=6 kg.m/s
Change Δp=15−6=9 kg.m/s

Q5. A cricket ball of mass 0.2 kg is hit by a bat and it acquires a velocity of
20 m/s in 0.01 s. Find the impulse and the force.
Solution:
Impulse =Δp=m⋅v=0.2×20=4 N.s
Force:

F=Impulse/Time=4/0.01=400 N

Q6. A gun of mass 2.5 kg fires a bullet of mass 0.05 kg. If the bullet leaves
the gun with a velocity of 400 m/s, find the recoil velocity of the gun.
Solution:
Initial momentum = 0
Let v be recoil velocity of the gun.

Total final momentum=0.05×400+2.5×(−v)=0⇒20=2.5v⇒v=20/2.5=8 m/s

(backward)

Q7. A ball of mass 0.1 kg moving at 10 m/s is stopped in 0.2 s by a force.

Calculate the magnitude of the force.
Solution:
Change in momentum = 0.1×10=1 kg.m/s
Time = 0.2 s

F=Δpt=10.2=5 N

Q8. A car of mass 1000 kg increases its velocity from 36 km/h to 72 km/h in
10 s. Find:
(i) acceleration,
(ii) force applied.
Solution:
Convert velocities:
36 km/h = 10 m/s, 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Acceleration:

a=(20−10)/10=1 m/s^2⇒F=m⋅a=1000×1=1000 N
Q9. A truck and a car have the same momentum. Which has more kinetic
energy?
Answer:
The car, because for the same momentum pp,

K.E.=p^2/2m⇒Smaller mass ⇒ greater KE

Q10. A 2 kg ball moving at 3 m/s collides with a 1 kg ball at rest. After

collision, both move together. Find their common velocity.
Solution:
Total initial momentum = 2×3+1×0=6 kg.m/s
Total mass = 3 kg
Common velocity = 6/3=2 m/s