Chapter 1

UNIT 1] Fundamental Structures and Basic Logic

Sets, Venn diagram, Cartesian product, Power sets, Cardinality and countability, Propositional logic, Logical
connectives, Truth tables, Normal forms, Validity, Predicate logic, Limitations of predicate logic, Universal
and existential quantification, First order logic c, Principles of Mathematical Induction: The Well-Ordering
Principle, Recursive definition, The Division algorithm: Prime Numbers, The Greatest Common Divisor:
Euclidean Algorithm, The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Set is the fundamental discrete structure upon which all other discrete structures are built. The
notion of sets was introduced by German Mathematician George Cantor (1845 - 1918) for a
better understanding of finite sequences. Simply set in mathematics means exactly what it
means in ordinary language, namely, a collection of objects. A battalion of soldiers, a ream of
papers, the alphabet, all are examples of sets.

1.1 Definition of Sets

A set can be defined as a collection of things that are brought together because they obey a
certain rule. These ‘things‘ may be anything like: numbers, people, shapes, cities etc. A
fundamental concept of set theory is that of membership or belonging to a set. Some key points
to be keep in mind:
 A set should be well-defined means its objects should follow certain rule
 Elements of a set should be distinguishable. Repetition will not
make any difference.
 Order of elements in a set is immaterial i.e. we can take any
sequence of elements in a set.

We use uppercase letters: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, . .. to denote a set and elements are denoted

1.1.1 Notation

in lowercase letter: 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 . ..

Elements of the set can be listed or definition of the variables can be given using
a variable. For instance,

The list of elements in a set can be represented as,

𝑋 = {1,3,5,7,9}

In order to describe the elements of the set we can write it as,

𝑋 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1,1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}

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we can use an identifier (′𝑥′ for example) to denote a representative element , while a ‘:’ symbol
means ‘such that’ and then the rule that the identifier should obey:

{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥| < 5}

or

{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, |𝑥| < 5 }

The latest way to write a set known as comprehension notation - can be expressed
in standard form as:

𝑥 | 𝑃(𝑥), where 𝑃(𝑥)is a statement states that the set comprised of all elements
′𝑥′ for which
𝑃 is true.

The symbol ∈ is used as follows:

● ∈ Stands for ‘is an element of. . . . For Example: 𝑠𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑒 ∈ 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓

𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
● ∉ Stands for ‘is not an element of . . .
● For example: 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝐷𝑒𝑙ℎ𝑖 ∉ 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

Finite: for example, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑠

A set can be

Infinite: for example, {3, 9, 12, 15, 18, . . . }

i.
ii.
(Note: the use of the ellipsis......indicates that sequence of numbers is endless).

Always, remember one thing that the order in which the elements in a set occur is
immaterial.

1.2 Types of Sets

Universal set: The collection of all elements under consideration is said to be
Universal set and it is denoted by U. For example, the universal set may be
{alphabetic characters} or {all living people} etc.

denoted by 𝜙. For example, Let a set 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} is given then 𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴. But 𝜙

Empty set: A set with no elements is called an empty or null set and generally

∉ 𝐴. Thus, the inclusion of an element is the membership of an element in a set.

Other examples,

Example 1.1

● If 𝑈 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 50 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙
then

● If 𝑈 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 then {𝑥 | 𝑥2 = 10} = 𝜙

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1.3 Relations between Sets
There are many ways in which sets may be related to one another.

Equity

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 Two sets are said to be equal if they contain the same elements i.e. if
every element of B is also in A, & every element of A is also in B,
then we say A =

e.g. if 𝐴 = {1,2,3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1,3,2} 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐵 .Two sets A & B are set to be
B.

equal, iff 𝐴 ⊆
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 or symbolically,

𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇔ (𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴)
Example 1.2

{1,2,4} = {1,2,2,4};

{1,4,2} = {1,2,4};

{1,3,5, . . . } = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}

Subsets

It can easily be imagine a set within a set. The contained set is called a subset of
the containing set. If the set A is a subset of B, we write:

𝐴⊆𝐵
Example 1.3

 The set of people living in Delhi is subset of the set of people living in India

 Set 𝐴 is called a proper subset of a set 𝑩if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵.

 The set of organic compounds is the subset of chemical compounds.

Symbolically it is written as ⊂ 𝐵 . It is also called proper inclusion. A

proper inclusion is not reflexive but it is transitive i.e. (𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵) and (𝐵 ⊂
𝐶) ⇒ (𝐴 ⊂ 𝐶)

Note:

i.e. for every set 𝐴, the empty set does not have anything that isn’t in 𝐴 . So for all
 Every set is a subset of the universal set, and the empty set is a subset of every set.

𝐴 (𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴)
sets

 If A is a subset of B i.e.(𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵) and B is a subset of A i.e.(𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴) then 𝐴

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 should comprises of exactly similar elements, and hence they are
equal. In further terms: If (𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵) and (𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴) then (𝐴 = 𝐵)

Disjoint

Disjoint sets can be defined as the sets with different elements with respect to

each other. For Instance:

If 𝐴 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 11, 19} then 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

are disjoint sets.
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1.4 Operations on Sets
Intersection

The intersection of any two sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, written as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set

consisting of all the elements which belong to both 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 i.e.

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 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Example: 1.4 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴)

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) = 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴 ∩ 𝜙) = 𝜙

 Two sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are called disjoint iff (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝜙, i.e. 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 have no
Note:

element in common.
 A collection of set is called disjoint collection if, for every pair of sets in the
collection the two sets are disjoint. The elements of a disjoint collection

e.g. If 𝐴 = {{1, 2}, {3}}, 𝐵 = {{1}, {2, 3}}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = {{1, 2, 3}}now these sets
are said to be mutually disjoint.

are mutually disjoint because (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝜙, (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) =

𝜙. So the given sets are mutually disjoint.

Union

The union of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, written as (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵), is the set of all elements which are
members of the set A or the set B or both it is written as

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

𝐴∪𝐵=𝐵∪𝐴
𝐴∪𝜙=𝐴
i.e.

𝐴∪𝐴=𝐴

Example 1.5 𝐴 = {0, 1, 2}

𝐵 = {0, −1, −2}

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {0}
Then

Complements

Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be two sets. For any set A, the relative complement of 𝐵 with
respect to 𝐴, written as 𝐴 − 𝐵 is the set consisting of all elements of 𝐴
which are not elements of 𝐵 i.e.
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
Relative complements of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 can be written as 𝐴 \ 𝐵

Let 𝑈 be the universal sets. For any set 𝐴, the relative complement of 𝐴 with
respect to 𝑈, i.e.
𝑈 − 𝐴 is called the absolute compliment of 𝐴 . It is often called the
compliment of 𝐴 and denoted by 𝐴𝐶.

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 𝑈 − 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐶 = {𝑋: 𝑋 ∈ 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}
Note: we can represent 𝐴𝐶 as 𝐴′ also.
i.e.

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1.5 Venn Diagrams
Introduction of the universal set permits the use of a pictorial device to study the
connection between the subsets of a universal set and their intersection, union,
difference and other operations. The diagrams used are called Venn Diagrams

1.5.1 Definition
Venn diagram is a schematic representation of a set by a set of points. The
universal set U is represented by a set of points in a rectangle and a subset say A
of U is represented by the interior of circle. The operation of union and
intersection can be very simply represented through Venn diagrams.

Thus “Venn diagrams are pictorial representations of sets and their inter-relations,
and of them some basic results in set theory become obvious through these
diagrams”.

Any closed curve enclosing an area may be supposed to

represent a set. Thus, let the circles A and B represent the sets A

and B respectively.

� 𝐴
�
𝐵
�
�

(Fig. 1.1 a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ (Fig. 1.1 b) 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴

𝐴 U 𝐴 U

(Fig. 1.1 c) 𝐴 (Fig. 1.1 d) 𝐴𝑐

𝐴 𝐵

Fig. 1.1 e 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

Thus from (Fig. 1.1 e), we see the portion common to two circles represents 𝐴 ∩
𝐵, while 𝐴 ∪
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𝐵 is represented by the total area covered by the two circles together.

Suppose we represent the universal set 𝑈 by the rectangle in the (fig. 1.1 d). The
component of 𝑆 with respect to 𝑈 denoted by 𝑆′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑐 (fig. 1.2).

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 𝑆

(Fig. 1.2) 𝑆′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑐

Venn diagrams can also help in visualizing some types of problems given below

Suppose, if 𝑈 is a universal complement or simply complement of a set 𝐴,

1.5.2 Complements

denoted by 𝐴𝑐 is the set of elements which belong to 𝑈 but which do not belong
to 𝐴:

𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

The relative complement of a set 𝐵 with respect to a set 𝐴, simply, the

difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴/𝐵 is the set of elements which belong to 𝐴
but which do not belong to 𝐵.

𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}

� 𝐴
𝐴 𝐵
𝑐
�

(fig. 1.3 b) 𝑨\𝑩 is shaded or 𝑨 −

𝑩 𝒐𝒓 𝑨~𝑩
Cartesian
product

1.6 Cartesian product

Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be two sets. The Cartesian (or direct) product of non-empty sets
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is defined as the set 𝐴 × 𝐵 is the set of all ordered pairs such that the
first member of the ordered pair is an element of 𝐴 and the second member of
𝐵. The Cartesian product of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 written as 𝐴 × 𝐵 and represented as

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}

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Example 1.6 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1,2,3}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3)}

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Note: if 𝐴 = ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is any non-empty set then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = ∅ = 𝐵 × 𝐴

Remark 1: In general 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴

Remark 2: If any one of the sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is empty then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = ∅

Remark 3: If 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 have 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 elements, then 𝐴 × 𝐵 has 𝑚𝑛 elements

Remark 4: If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-empty sets then

𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) ≠ (𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶
1.7 Power Sets

On several occasions testing all the combinations of elements in a set for the

combinations in a set 𝑆, it needs to create a set which has these combinations as

particular property involves numerous problems. In order to consider all such

subsets of 𝑆

Let 𝑆 be a set, and then the power set of 𝑆 i.e. set of all subsets of set 𝑆 can be
represented as 𝑃(𝑆)

Example 1.7 The power set P({3, 5, 7}) is the set of all subsets of {3, 5, 7}.

Hence, P({3, 5, 7}) = {∅, {3}, {5}, {7}, {3, 5}, {3, 7}, {5, 7}, {3, 5, 7}}.

Note that in the set of subsets, empty set and the set itself are among its

members. An empty set has only one subset i.e itself. Thus,

The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, viz., ∅ and the set {∅} itself. Therefore,
P (∅) = {∅}.

P ({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}.

1.8 Counting Principles

Initially we are introducing two basic counting principles i.e. Product Rule and
Sum Rule. Later on, we will discuss the way they used to solve the counting
problems

Assume that a process is broken down into two jobs and let there be 𝑛1 ways to
1.8.1 Product Rule

conduct first job and for each first job there are 𝑛2 ways to conduct second job

𝑛1. 𝑛2 ways to get the entire process done.

therefore in all there are

Example 1.8:
A company with two employees namely Sanjeev and Pankaj, leases a floor in a
building having 12 offices. So in exactly how many ways does the distinct office
can be assigned to both of the employees?

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It can be solve as,
In the process to assign offices to two of the employees can be done by starting
with Sanjeev to which an office can be assigned in 12 ways (since the total no. of
offices in building is 12)

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later on, Pankaj can be assigned an office in 11 ways (since an office is already
allotted to Sanjeev). Hence using product rule we can express this situation as,
12 x 11 = 132
Ways to assign offices to these two employees.

1.8.2 Sum Rule

Let us consider if a job that can be done either in one of n1 methods or one of n2
methods thereafter none of the set of n1 methods are similar to the set with n2
methods thus, there are n1+n2 ways to conduct that job.

Example 1.9
A student can select only a project from three given lists out of which each one
consists of 23, 15 and 19 projects respectively. There is no repetition of any
project among these three lists. Then how many projects is there that can be
selected by students?

Solution: The student can select a project either from the first list or the second

rule there are 23 + 15 + 19 = 57 ways to select a project.

list or the third list. Though no project is repeated in any of the list, using sum

Assume that if a job can be done in one of two methods and within that there is
one which is common to both. In such a scenario, the sum rule cannot be used to
count the number of methods to conduct the job. This can be done in two or
more ways. We have to see whether to do this job in many ways that will be
counted repeatedly. So we have to subtract those methods which we have
counted twice.

If a job that can be done in 𝑛1 ways or 𝑛2 ways then the total number of ways
1.8.3 Subtraction Rule

in which that job can be accomplished will be expressed as 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 and

subtracting the number of ways that are common in these two ways.

The rule of subtraction is also called as principle of inclusion–exclusion,

particularly in case of counting the elements in the union of two sets. Assume
that S1 and S2 are the two sets. At that time, there are |S1| ways to choice an
element from S1 and |S2| ways to choice an element from S2. The total number
of ways to choose an element from S1 or from S2, will be the number of ways to
choose an element from the union of these two sets. It will be the sum of the
number of ways to choose an element from S1 and the number of ways to

that is in both S1 and S2. Mathematically it will be |S1 ∪ S2|ways to select an

choose an element from S2, minus the number of ways to choose an element

element in either S1 or in S2, and |S1 ∩ S2| ways to choose an element common
to both sets, this will give a formula

|S1 ∪ S2| = |S1| + |S2| − |S1 ∩ S2|.

This is the expression for the total number of unique elements in the union of two
sets.

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Example 1.10
How many bytes either start with a 1 bit or terminated with the two bits 00?

Solution: We can create a string of bits of length eight that will either start with 1
or terminates with two bits 00. We can create a string of bits having length eight
that starts with a bit 1 in 27

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= 128 ways. This is due to the product rule, since the first bit can be chosen in
only single way and every other bits can be chosen in two ways. Similarly, we
can create a string of bits with length eight terminating with the two bits 00, in 2 6
= 64 ways. This is due to the product rule, since each of the first six bits can be
chosen in two ways and the last two bits can be chosen in only one way.

Some of the ways to create a string of bits with length eight starts at 1 are the
same as the ways to create a string of bits with length eight that terminates with
the two bits 00. There are 25 = 32 ways to create such a string. This uses the
product rule, since the first bit can be chosen in only one way, every sixth bits
can be chosen in two ways, and the last two bits can be chosen in one way.
Subsequently, the number of strings of bits with length eight that starts at 1 or
terminate at 00, which equals the number of ways to create a string of bits of
length eight that starts at 1 or that terminates with 00, equals 128 + 64 − 32 =
160.

1.8.4 Division Rule

“There are 𝑛/𝑑 methods to do a job if it can be done using a process that can be
It is useful while solving listing problems.

conducted in 𝑛 ways, and for each way 𝑤, exactly 𝑑 out of the 𝑛 ways resemble
to way 𝑤.”

of 𝑛 pairwise disjoint subsets each with 𝑑 elements, then 𝑛 = |𝑆|/𝑑 .”

The division rule can be reaffirmed in terms of sets: “If a finite set S is the union

We can demonstrate the division rule for counting with the following example.

Example 1.11
How many dissimilar ways to seat four people about a circular table, where two
seating’s are assumed the same when each person has the same left and the
right neighbor?

Solution: Firstly, randomly select a seat around the table and tag it seat 1.
Then tag the remaining seats in arithmetical order, arranged clockwise manner
around the table.
Consider the facts,
- There are four ways to opt the person for seat 1,
- Three ways to opt the person for seat 2,
- Two ways to opt the person for seat 3,

Therefore, we can say that this can be done in factorial 4 ways, i.e. 4! = 24 ways
- One way to opt the person for seat 4.

to order the given four people for these seats.

Though, each of the four choices for seat 1 leads to the same arrangement, as it
can be distinguished two arrangements only when one of the people has a
different immediate left or immediate right neighbor.
Now we have four ways to select the person for seat 1, by the division rule it will
be
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 24/4 = 6

different seating arrangements of four people around the circular table.

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 Fig. 1.4

Tree Diagrams

The problems on counting can also be solved by using trees. A tree contains a
root; a number of branches originate from the root, and possible further
branches originating the endpoints of other branches. To use trees in counting,
we use a branch to represent each possible choice. We represent the possible
outcomes by the leaves, which are the endpoints of branches not having other
branches starting at them.

Example 1.12
Assume that “I Love India” T-shirts available in five variants: S, M, L, XL, and XXL.
Besides this assume that each variant available in four different colors, yellow,
orange, pink, and gray, except for XL, which available in orange, pink, and gray,
and XXL, which have pink and gray. How many different t-shirts does a memento
shop should stock to have at least one of each available variant and color of the
T-shirt?

Solution: The trees diagram in the given Figure 1-5 displays all the possible
variants and color pairs. It follows that the memento shop owner needs to stock
17 different T-shirts.

Fig. 1.5

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1.9 Cardinality

Sets are broadly used in counting problems, therefore for such use we need to
study about their sizes.

Let us assume that S be a set contains n distinct elements where n is any non-
negative integer then the set S is said to be finite. The cardinality of set S can be
represented by |S| which is in other term also called as number of elements in S.

Examples 1.13

 Let X be the set of odd positive integers less than 20. Then |X| = 10.
 Let P be the set of prime positive integers less than 10. Then |P| = 5.
 Though the null set contain no elements, it follows that |∅| = 0.

We will also be interested in sets that are not finite. Infinite

set: A set is called as infinite if it is not finite set. Example

1.14 The set of all positive integers is infinite set. Extending

the notion of cardinality

Till now the notion of cardinality was in the scope of finite sets which is used to
compare the two finite sets on the basis of their sizes. Now we are extending this
notion to infinite set where the comparison can be done on the basis of the
difference between their sizes with respect to each other.

These notions have vital applications to computer science. A set is said to be

uncomputable in case of infeasibility of a computer program to find all its values,
even with unlimited time and memory. This notion is used to explain why
uncomputable sets exist.

Definition:

The sets A and B are said to have same cardinality only when their sizes are
equal and have one to one correspondence between distinct elements of the set.
It can be expressed as |A| =
|B|.

In case of infinite sets, we need to talk of the cardinality on relatively among two
sets instead of being particular to a set.

In other words, If there is a one to one correspondence between A and B, the

size of A is less than or same as the size of B and we express it as |A| ≤ |B|. Here
we can add that when
|A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we can conclude that the
cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of B and it will be |A| < |B|.

1.10 Countability

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1.10.1 Countable Sets
Now, we will divide infinite sets into two different groups, those with the similar
cardinality as the set of natural numbers and those with a dissimilar cardinality.

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 Fig. 1.6

of positive integers 𝑍+. A set is called countable iff, it is finite or countably infinite.
A set is said to be countably infinite iff, it has the similar cardinality as the set

Example 1.15 To show a set is countable:

Fig. 1.7

one to one correspondence with the set of positive integers 𝑍+. It can be
In order to proof that the set odd positive integers is finite, we need to have

expressed as,

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 – 1

from 𝑍+ to the set of odd positive integers. We prove that 𝑓 is a one-to-one

correspondence by showing that it is both one-to-one and onto. To see that it

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑦).
is one-to-one, suppose that

Then 2𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑦 − 1, so 𝑥 = 𝑦.

To see that it is onto, suppose that 𝑛 is an odd positive integer. Then 𝑛 is 1 less
than an even integer 2𝑘, where 𝑘 is a natural number. Hence 𝑛 = 2𝑘 − 1 = 𝑓
(𝑘).

An infinite set is countable if and only if it is possible to list the elements of the

one-to-one correspondence 𝑓 from the set of positive integers to a set S can be

set in a sequence (indexed by the positive integers). The reason for this is that a

𝑎1, 𝑎2, . . . , 𝑎𝑥, . . . , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎1 = 𝑓 (1), 𝑎2 = 𝑓 (2), . . . , 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥), . . . .

expressed in terms of a sequence

1.10.2 Uncountable Sets

A set that is not countable is called uncountable.

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A significant proof method presented in 1879 by Georg Cantor and commonly
known as the Cantor diagonalization argument. It was supposed to prove that
the set of real numbers is not countable.

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Let’s see that how the set of real numbers is uncountable, we assume in advance
that the set of real numbers is countable and reach at a stage of contradiction.
Then, the subset of all real numbers that are between 0 and 1 would also be
countable (since any subset of a countable set is also countable). Under this
assumption, the real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in some order, say,
r1, r2, r3, ... We can decimal represent these real numbers like

𝑟1 = 0. 𝑑11𝑑12𝑑13𝑑14. … …

𝑟2 = 0. 𝑑21𝑑22𝑑23𝑑24. … …

𝑟3 = 0. 𝑑31𝑑32𝑑33𝑑34. … …

𝑟4 = 0. 𝑑41𝑑42𝑑43𝑑44. … …

...

where dij ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. (For example, if r1 = 0.23794102 . . . , we

have d11 = 2, d12 = 3, d13 = 7, and so on.) Then, form a new real number with
decimal expansion

r = 0.d1d2d3d4 . . . , where the decimal digits are determined by the following rule:

𝑑𝑖 = {4 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≠ 4
5 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≠ 4

(As an example, suppose that r1 = 0.23794102 . . . , r2 = 0.44590138 . . . , r3 =

0.09118764 . .
. , r4 = 0.80553900 . . . , and so on. Then we have r = 0.d1d2d3d4 . . . = 0.4544 . . .
, where d1
= 4 because d11 ≠ 4, d2 = 5 because d22 = 4, d3 = 4 because d33 ≠ 4, d4 = 4
because d44 ≠ 4, and so on.)

the real number 𝑟 is not equal to any of its component because the decimal
Decimal expansion of each real number is unique by itself. Consequently,

expansion of r differs from the decimal expansion of their components to the

right of the decimal point.

Though there is a real number r between 0 and 1 that is not in the list, the
supposition that all the real numbers between 0 and 1 could be listed should be
false. Thus, all the real numbers between 0 and 1 cannot be listed, so the set of
real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable. Any set having an uncountable
subset is uncountable. Therefore, the set of real numbers is uncountable.

Results about Cardinality

 If X and Y are countable sets, then their union is also countable.

 If X and Y are sets with |X| ≤ |Y| and |Y| ≤|X|, then |X| = |Y|. In other terms,
there is a one-to-one correspondence between X and Y.

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1.11 Basic Set Identities and Proofs

Useful Definitions

For 𝐴, 𝐵 subsets of the universal set 𝑈

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 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐶 ⟺ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴

𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵

1.11.1 Basic set Identities

o 𝐴∪𝐵=𝐵∪𝐴
 Cumulative Law

o 𝐴∩𝐵=𝐵∩𝐴

o (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
 Associative Law

o (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

o 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
 Distributive Laws

o 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

o ∅∪𝐴=𝐴∪∅=𝐴
 Identity Laws

o 𝐴∩∅=∅∩𝐴=∅
o 𝐴∩𝑈=𝑈∩𝐴=𝐴
o 𝐴∪𝑈=𝑈∪𝐴=𝑈

o 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑈
 Complement Law

𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐶 = ∅
o 𝑈𝐶 = ∅
o

o ∅𝐶 = 𝑈

o (𝐴𝐶)𝐶 = 𝐴
 Double Complement Law

o 𝐴∪𝐴=𝐴
 Idempotent Law

o 𝐴∩𝐴=𝐴

o (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐶
 De Morgan’s Law

o (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐶

o 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐶
 Alternative representation for set difference

1.11.2 Proofs

Distributive Law

For sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 prove that 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

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Proof: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

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⟺ 𝑥∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)

⟺ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)

⟺ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

⟺ 𝑥 ∈ {(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)}

Thus, we can say 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

1.12 Pigeonhole Principle

The pigeonhole principle states that if n+1 pigeons fly into n pigeonholes, then at
least one pigeonhole must contain two or more pigeons. This principle is
illustrated in Figure 1.8 for 5 pigeons and 4 pigeonholes. Illustration (a) shows
the pigeons perched next to their holes, and
(b) shows the correspondence from pigeons to pigeonholes. The pigeonhole
principle is sometimes called the Dirichlet box principle because it was first
stated formally by J. P. G. L. Dirichlet (1805–1859).

Fig. 188

Illustration (b) suggests the following mathematical way to phrase the principle.

Generalized Pigeonhole Principle

A generalization of the pigeonhole principle states that if n pigeons fly into m

pigeonholes and, for some positive integer k, k < n/m, then at least one
pigeonhole contains k + 1 or more pigeons. This is illustrated in Figure 1.9 for m
= 4, n = 9, and k = 2. Since 2 < 9/4 = 2.25, at least one pigeonhole contains
three (2 + 1) or more pigeons. (In this example, pigeonhole 3 contains three
pigeons.)

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 Fig. 1.9

Propositional Logic

Reasoning revolves around reasoning. We can call it as set of rules while working
with logical reasoning. The history shows great signs over the timeframe that
reasoning is being a constant factor in derivation of knowledge and its
representation. This is all the critical work of George Boole, a famous British
mathematician which was handy taken by Gotlob Frege. Modern philosopher and
Mathematician Bertand Russell with Alfred Whitehead had come out with the
new definite set of logics which are common in use now.

Logic is based on truth and false of statements. However, there are many other
factors which determine whether the statement is true of false. In spite of using
individual statements, symbols had been used to represent arbitrary statements
so that the results can be used.

The types of logic are

a. Propositional logic ( logic of sentences)

b. Predicate logic ( logic of objects)
c. Fuzzy logics
d. Uncertainty logics etc.

We are bit focused on Propositional logic and Predicate logics.

4.1 Propositional Logic

It is basically logic of sentences or in other words it is the logic of statements. It

is the way through which one studies the joining or modifying entire propositions,
statements or sentences.

One can also come up with more complicated propositions, statements or

sentences as well as logical relationship or any property among them by deriving
these basic statements. In this Propositional logic the basic statements can be
called as indivisible units. Or in other words it cannot be further divided into
statements. Hence propositional logic does not study these partial statements
and hence doesn’t come out with any logical properties and relations on them
i.e. subject and predicate of a statement.

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Among many propositional logics the truth functional propositional logic is
perfect. It is based on logical operators and connectives which give rises to
complex statements. Interestingly the

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truth value of these complex statements depend upon the truth value of simple
statements and hence once can derive that the statement is true or false and not
both.

This clearly shows that the sentences in this category are either true or false and
also known as propositional sentences.

4.2 Propositions

As defined earlier a proposition is a sentence which is either true or false, but not
both. We can also call like this if the proposition is true, then its truth value is
true.

Example 4.1 Let us consider the following propositions along with their truth
values:

1. Sky is blue True

2. Sun is yellow True

Here the truth values of both of the propositions are true.

Let us consider some propositions whose truth values are false.

3. Bus can Fly False

4. “4 + 4 = 9” False

Let us see some other examples where the sentences are neither true nor false.

5. “Open the gate”

6. “Is the tea hot?”

7. What is the temperature outside?

From these three sentences, we can come out with any result whether they are
true of false, hence we can’t call them propositions. . The 5th sentence is an
order; the 6th sentence is a question, tea may be hot or cold. Similarly the 7th
sentence asks about the temperature. Thus, no definite set of information
(true/false) can we derive from these sentences, so we can say they are not
propositional sentences.

4.2.1 Elements of propositions

Simple true of false statements are called as basic propositions. When these
simple statements are joined or combined using the connectives, they form
complex sentences. We can say that propositions and connectives are two
fundamental elements of propositional logic.

Although there are many connectives, but are confining herewith five connectives,
basic in nature are:

 NOT
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 AND
 OR
 IF_THEN (or IMPLY)

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  IF_AND_ONLY_IF

They are also denoted by the symbols: ¬, ⋀, ⋁, ⟶, ⟷ respectively.

4.1.2 Propositional Variable

The name which is supposed to represent a proposition is commonly known as

propositional variable. We can understand the same with some examples.
1. P1: The earth is a planet (True)
2. P2 : Fish walks on road (False)
3. P3 : 2+ 2 = 4 (True)

4.3 Basic Logic

The logic starts with a variable. In simple words we can define variable as a letter
we use for an unknown object of any type.

Let us consider the equation 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 10. Here 𝑎 and 𝑏 are variables which
denotes some values whose sum is 10.

Lets us take another example. We write a statement that

“Let B is superset of X”. This shows that B is a variable (where it is an

unknown set) whereas we can’t call X as variable (it is a name given to set of
all odd numbers).

But in case of example where 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 15 and 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 20 , both 𝑎

and 𝑏 are variables even though the values are inter dependent with each
other.

It would be quite normal to say something like this: “Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be two real
numbers. Suppose that they satisfy the equations 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 8 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12.
Determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦” It is then reasonable to call them variables,
because initially no information is given about them. Further we have some
relationships between 𝑥 and 𝑦 and from these relationships it is possible to
deduce the exact values of 𝑥 and 𝑦.

4.3.1 Logical Connectives

The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form compound propositions are
called connectives. There are five basic connectives called, Negation,
Conjunction, Disjunction, Implication or conditional and Equivalence or
Biconditional.

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 Table 4.1 Connectives, symbols and symbolic form

Symbol Connective Nature of statement Symbolic

~, ¬ ~𝑝
used word form

⋀ 𝑝⋀𝑞
Not Negation

∨ 𝑝∨𝑞
And Conjunction

⇒, ⟶ 𝑝⟶𝑞
Or Disjunction

⟺, ⟷ 𝑝⟷𝑞
If……then Implication (or Conditional)
If and only if Equivalence (or Bi-

≡ 𝑝≡𝑞
conditional)
Equivalence Equivalence of predicate

Negation

If 𝑝 is any proposition, the negation of 𝑝, denoted by ~𝑝 and read as not 𝑝, is a

proposition which is false when 𝑝 is true and true when 𝑝 is false. Consider the
statement

𝑝: 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Then the negation of 𝑝 is the statement

~𝑝: 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

statements and ~𝑝 is not really a compound statement. However, negation is a

Strictly speaking, negation is not a connective, since it does not join two

unary operation for the collection of statements, and ~𝑝 is a statement if 𝑝 is

considered a statement.

Example 4.2 The following propositions are equivalent:

𝑝 : All people are intelligent.

𝑞 : Every person is intelligent.

𝑟 : Each person is intelligent.

𝑠 : Any person is intelligent.

Example 4.3 The negation of the proposition

𝑝 : All students are

intelligent can be expressed in the following

ways:

~𝑝 : Some students are not intelligent.

~𝑝 : There exists a student who is not intelligent.

~𝑝 : At least one student is not intelligent.

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Example 4.4 The negation of the proposition

𝑞 : No student is intelligent .

is

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 ~𝑞 : Some students are intelligent.

Note that “No student is intelligent” is not the negation of 𝑝; “All students are
intelligent” is not the negation of 𝑞.

Conjunction

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two statements, then conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound

statement denoted by 𝑝⋀𝑞 and read as “𝑝 and 𝑞”. The compound statement 𝑝
∧ 𝑞 is true when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, otherwise it is false.

Example 4.5

Form the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 for each of the following.

a) 𝑝: Ram is healthy 𝑞: He has blue eyes

b) 𝑝: It is cold 𝑞: It is raining
c) 𝑝: 5𝑥 + 6 = 26 𝑞: 𝑥 > 3

Solution:

a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: Ram is healthy and he has blue eyes

b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 : It is cold and raining.
c) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∶ 5𝑥 + 6 = 26 and 𝑥 > 3

Remarks

The symbol ∧ has specific meaning which is corresponding to the connective

‘and’ appearing in the English language, although ‘and’ may also be used with
some other meanings. In order to see the difference, consider the following three
statements:

(i) Nilam is a girl and Arjun is a boy.

(ii) Shekhar switched on the computer and started to work
(iii)Kanchan and Sheela are friends.

In statement (i) the connective ‘and’ is used in the same sense as the symbol ∧.
In (ii) the word ‘and’ is used in the sense of ‘and then’ because the action
described in “Shekhar started to work” after the action described in “shekhar
switched on the computer”. Finally, in (iii) the world ‘and’ is not at all a
connective.

In logic we may combine any two sentences to form a conjunction, there is no

requirement that the two sentences be related in content or subject matter. Any
combinations, however absurd, are permitted, of course, we are usually not
interested in sentences like ‘’Tanvir loves to play cricket”, and 4 is divisible by 2’.

Disjunction

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two statements, the disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound

statement denoted by 𝑝⋁𝑞 and read as “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞”. The statement 𝑝⋁𝑞 is true if
at least one of 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 is true (The advertiser who writes ‘The candidate must
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languages). It is false when both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are false.
know English or Hindi, certainly would not reject a candidate if he knows both the

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The English word “or” can be used in two different senses – as an inclusive
(“and/or”) or exclusive (“either/or”). For example consider the following
statements.

1. 𝑝: He will go to Delhi or to Calcutta

2. 𝑞: There is something wrong with bulb or with the circuit.

In the compound statement (1), the disjunction of the statements 𝑝 has been
used in exclusive sense (𝑝 or 𝑞 but not both); that is to say: one or the other
possibility exists but not both. Clearly, a person can not do both.

inclusive sense (𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ). In this case at least one of the two possibilities
In compound statement (2), the connective or is being used in an

occurred, however both could have occurred. We shall always use ‘or’ in the
inclusive sense unless it is stated.

Example 4.6 Assign a truth value to each of the following statements.

(i) 5 < 5 ⋁ 5 < 6

(ii) 5 × 4 = 21 ∨ 9 + 7 = 17
(iii)6 + 4 = 10 ∨ 0 > 2

Solution:

(i) True, since one of its components 5 < 6 is true

(iii)True, since one of its components 6 + 4 = 10 is true.

(ii) False, since both of its components are false.

Example 4.7 If 𝑝: It is cold and 𝑞: It is raining.

Write simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following statements

a) ~𝑝 b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 c) 𝑝⋁𝑞 d) 𝑝 ∨
~𝑞

Solution:

~𝑝: It is not cold

𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: It is cold and raining
a)

𝑝⋁𝑞: It is cold or raining

b)

𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞: It is cold or it is not raining.

c)
d)

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two propositions, then ‘IF 𝑝 THEN 𝑞’ is a proposition (denoted by 𝑝

Implication (If . . . Then)

→ 𝑞). In
𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑝 is called hypothesis or premise and 𝑞 is called conclusion or
consequence.

Example 4.8:

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Let 𝑝 denote “It is cold” and let 𝑞 denote “It rains”. Write the following statements
in symbolic form
a. It rains only if it is cold.
b. A necessary condition for it to be cold is that it rain.
c. A sufficient condition for it to be cold is that it rain.

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 a. 𝑞 → 𝑝
Solution:

b. 𝑝 → 𝑞
c. 𝑞 → 𝑝

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions. The proposition 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is called bi-conditional and

Bi-conditional (If and only if)

it is read as “𝑝 if and only if 𝑞” (or) “𝑝 iff 𝑞”.

The truth value of 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true if both p and q are true or false; 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is false if
𝑝 and 𝑞
have different truth values.

Example 4.9

a. Mumbai is in India if and only if 3 + 3 = 6.

Determine the truth value of each of the following statements:

b. Mumbai is in India if and only if 3 + 3 = 7.

c. Mumbai is in Australia if and only if 3 + 3 = 6.
d. Mumbai is in Australia if and only if 3 + 3 = 7.
Solution:
(a) and (d) are true since the sub-statements are both true in (a) and both
false in (d). On the other hand, (c) and (b) are false since the sub-
statements have different truth values.

Equivalence (Logical Equivalence ‘≡’)

Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent, or simply equivalent

or equal, denoted by

𝑝≡𝑞

If they have identical truth

values.

4.3.2 Truth Tables

The truth value of a proposition is either true (denoted by T) or false (denoted by
F). A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound proposition
for all possible cases.

For example, consider the conjunction of any two propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞 . The
compound statement 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, otherwise false.
There are four possible cases.

𝑝 true and 𝑞 is true.

𝑝 true and 𝑞 is false.
1. is

𝑝 false and 𝑞 is true.

2. is

𝑝 false and 𝑞 is false.

3. is
4. is

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There four cases are listed in the first two columns and the truth values of ∧ 𝑞 , 𝑝
∨ 𝑞 and
~𝑝 are shown in the table below:

Table 4.2 Truth tables of (a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, (b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 and (c) ~𝑝

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 𝑝
𝑝 𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) 𝑝 𝑞 (𝑝⋁𝑞) ~𝑝
T T T T T T T F
T F F T F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F

(b) (c)
(a)

The truth value of a compound depends only on the truth values of the
statements being combined and on the types of connectives being used. Truth
tables are especially valuable in the determination of the truth of connectives
being used. Truth tables are especially valuable in the determination of the truth

columns of the table are for the variables 𝑝, 𝑞, … … … and the number of rows
values of propositions constructed from simpler propositions. Note that the first

variables, 8 rows are necessary; in general, for 𝑛 variables, 2𝑛 rows are required.
depends on the number of variables. For 2 variables, 4 rows are necessary; for 3

The truth value at each step is determined from the previous stages by the
definition of connectives. The truth value of the proposition appears in the last
column.

Some Important Laws

a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
1. Idempotent Law

b. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝

a. (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
2. Associative Law

b. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑟 ∧ 𝑟)

a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑝
3. Commutative Law

b. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝

a. ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
4. De-Morgan’s Law

b. ∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞

a. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
5. Distributive Law

b. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
6. ∼∼ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
7. 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝 ≡ 1, 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝 ≡ 0
8. 𝑝 ∨ 1 ≡ 1, 𝑝 ∧ 1 ≡ 𝑝

4.4 Tautologies and Contradictions

A compound proposition that is always true for all possible truth values of its
variables or in other words, that contains only T in the last column of its truth
table is called a tautology. A compound proposition that is always false for all
possible values of its variables or in other words, that contains only F in the last
column of its truth table is called a contradiction. Finally a proposition that is
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neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

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Example 4.10 Propositions like

a) The professor is either a woman or a man.

b) People either like watching TVs or they

don’t. are always true and are called tautologies.

Example 4.11 Propositions like

a) 𝑥 is prime and 𝑥 is an even integer greater than 8

b) All men are good and all men

are bad are always false and are called

contradictions.

Example 4.12 Prove that the following propositions are tautology

a) 𝑝 ⋁ ~𝑝 b) ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 c) 𝑝 → (𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞)

Solution:

(a) The truth table of the given proposition is shown below. Since the truth
value is TRUE for all possible values of the propositional variables which
can be seen in the last column the table, the given proposition is tautology

Truth table of 𝑝 ⋁ ~𝑝
𝑝 ~𝑝 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝
Table 4.3

T F T
F T T

that for any possible assignment of 𝑝 and 𝑞, the expression ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞

(b) We construct the truth table for the expression in question. It can be seen

is true, which establishes that it is a tautology

Table 4.4 Truth table of ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

(c) We construct the truth table of the given expression. It can be seen from

possible assignments of 𝑝 and 𝑞. Hence the proposition is tautology.

the last column of the truth table that the expression is true for all

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 Table 4.5 Truth table of 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

4.5 Normal Forms

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𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T

Let’s talk about normal forms. So far we have learned about the propositions,
tautologies, contradictions and putting them in truth table. Surprisingly it is not
always possible to construct the truth table when there are too many variables.

So the better method is to transform the expressions p and q to some form of

i.e. 𝑝′ and 𝑞′ in such a way that they can denotes something like 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞.
expressions

The standard forms are popularly known as normal forms or in some places it can also be called as
canonical forms.

Types of normal forms:

1. Disjunctive normal forms

2. Conjunctive normal forms.

For simplifying the things, we often use the words product for the logical
connective conjunction and sum for logical connective disjunction.

We can take some other common terms like Elementary Product or Elementary
Sum.

4.5.1 Elementary Product

example, let us take two atomic variables p and q then 𝑝, ~𝑝, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, and ~𝑝
It can be defined as a product of variable and their negation in a formula. For

∧ 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑞 are the examples of elementary product.

We are already familiar that any variable 𝑝, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 is a contradiction. Hence, if 𝑝

∧ ~𝑝 appears in the elementary product, then the product is definitely false.

This clearly shows that the statement a necessary condition for an elementary
product to be identically false is that it should contains at least one pair of
factors in which one is the negation of the other.

4.5.2 Elementary Sum

can take example of 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two variables. Then 𝑝, ~𝑝, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, and ~𝑝
An elementary sum can be defined as the sum of variable and its negation. We

∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 can be called as some examples of elementary sum.

For an example we know for variable 𝑝, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 is tautology. Hence, if 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝

appears in the elementary sum, then the sum is identically true.

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Hence, we can derive from this that for a statement the necessary condition for
an elementary sum to be identically true is that it must contain at least one pair
of factor in which one is the negation of the other.

4.5.3 Disjunctive Normal Form

We can define an expressive to be Disjunctive normal form or popularly known
as DNF, when it is to be the sum of elementary products.

For example, 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) and 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) are in disjunctive normal form while

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) is not in disjunctive normal form.

Procedure to obtain a disjunctive normal form of a given logical expression

In order to attain a DNF through algebraic expressions, it can be worked in three
steps.

a. We should remove all → and ↔ by an equivalent expression

containing the connectives ∨ ∧, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~ only
b. Elimination of ~ before sums and products by using De Mogans law
or by the double negation
c. Implying the distributive law until we obtained a sum of

elementary product Let’s work out the above with a suitable example.

Example 4.13 Obtain the DNF of the following:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) (b) 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∨ (𝑞 ⇒ ~𝑟)))

Solution:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
≡ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

(b) 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∨ (𝑞 ⇒ ~𝑟))) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∨ (~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟)))

≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ (~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟)))

≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟

≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟

4.5.4 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)

A logical expression if it consists of a product of elementary sum is called as
conjunctive normal form (CNF). Let us understand the same with a suitable
example.

Example 4.14 Find the conjunctive normal form of the followings:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) (b) [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ ~[(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞]

Solution:

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(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) it is the CNF of the statement

(b) [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ ~[(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞] ≡ [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ [~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ ~𝑞]

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 ≡ [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ [(~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟) ∨ ~𝑞]

≡ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑝) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) ∧ (~𝑟 ∨ ~𝑞)

After understanding DNF and CNF we are going to learn about PDNF i.e. Principal
disjunctive Normal form.

4.5.5 Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF)

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two statement variables. If we create all possible formulae that
consist of conjunction of 𝑝 or ~𝑝 with 𝑞 or ~𝑞 excluding the forms where a
variable and its negation both appear and any form equivalent to previously
obtained form, we are going to get the following forms:

𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞, and ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

We can call these forms as minterms for the two variables 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Interestingly we do find that all minterms are different. If there are 𝑛 variables in
a statement formula, then there will be 2𝑛 minterms.

Let’s find the minterms of the three variables 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟, they are

𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟, ~𝑝

∧ ~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟,and ~𝑝 ∧
~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟.

An equivalent formula consisting of disjunctions of min-terms alone for a given

formula is commonly called as principal disjunctive normal form (PDNF). Let’s do
it with an example:

Example 4.15 Write the PDNF of 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

Solution:

𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑇) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑇))

≡ (𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞)) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝑇)

≡ ((𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)

Example 4.16 Find the PDNF of the following statements:

1. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 → 𝑞)
2. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
3. 𝑝 → 𝑞

Solution: Let’s try to find out the PDNF through truth table:

Firstly, for every truth value 𝑇 of the given formula in the truth table, write the
Finding of Principal Disjunctive Normal Form using Truth Table

minterm corresponding to the truth values of the variables. We all know that the

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minterm consists of the variable itself if its truth value is true and negation of the
variable if its truth value is false.

The disjunction of these minterms is the PDNF of the given formula. The PDNF of 𝑝
∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
can be find as below:

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 Table 4.6 Truth table of 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)and corresponding minterms

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑞)
𝑝∧𝑞
𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
T T T T
T F F T
F T F F
F F F F

formula. Hence, the PDNF is (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞).

The truth table, clearly shows that only two truth values are true for the given

4.5.6 Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF)

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two statement variables. If we try to create all possible formulae
that consist of disjunctions of 𝑝 or ~𝑝 with 𝑞 or ~𝑞 excluding the forms where a
variable and its negation both appear in any form equivalent to previously
obtained form, we will have the following forms:

𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞, and ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞

We can call these forms as maxterms for the two variables 𝑝 and 𝑞. In PDNF we do
have minterms but in PCNF we will have maxterms.

We can understand with an example for three variables 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟, the maxterms
are: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨
~𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨
𝑟,and ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨
~𝑟.

For a given formula, an equivalent formula consisting of conjunction of max-

terms alone is popularly called as Principal conjunctive normal form (PCNF). We
can understand it better with the help of following example:

Example 4.17 Write the PCNF of 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞).

Solution:

𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝐹) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ∨ 𝐹 ≡ 𝑝)

≡ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ~𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 ≡ 𝐹)

≡ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

≡ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝)

We will try to find the Principal Conjunctive Normal Form Using Truth
Table The PCNF of a given formula using the truth table can be find
out as follows.

For any given formula in the truth table,for every truth value 𝐹 we write the
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max-term corresponding to the truth values. As maxterm consists of the variable
itself it its truth value false and the negation of the variable if its truth value is
true.

The conjunction of these maxterms will be the PCNF of the given

formula. PCNF of 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) can be obtained as given in the

table below:

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 Table 4.7 Truth table of 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) and corresponding maxterms

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑞)
T T T T

𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞
T F T T

𝑝∨𝑞
F T T F

Hence, the PCNF is (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞).

F F F F

In last we can say that PDNF and PCNF techniques are very useful in
understanding the logics effectively.

Inference
An inference can be defined as a process or a method of making logical
conclusions on the basis of premises known or expected to be true. The derived
conclusion is considered to be natural.

The propositions that are assumed to be true are called hypotheses or premises.
The proposition derived by the using the rules of inference is called conclusion.
The process of deriving conclusions based on the assumption of premises is
called a valid argument.

It can be explained as the illogical, but rational stuff via perceiving facts
patterns, context for understanding. In other words, inference does not used to
derive conclusions but unlocks the new avenues for inquiry. Inferences can be
categorized in two types as:

1. Inductive Inference
2. Deductive inference.

Let us look at the example of inductive inference:

1. All Cricketers are fit.

2. Sachin is a Cricketer.
3. Therefore, Sachin is fit.

Here we can check truthfulness of the premises and conclusion, besides logic &
inference are interrelated: does the truth of the assumption follow the premises?

To determine form of the inference is significant because on the basis of it,

validity of an inference can be determined. However, the word “valid” itself
depicts the form of inference rather than the truthiness of premises or the
conclusion. It is possible that an inference can said to be valid even if some
portion is false and may get invalid in spite of some portion of it is true. Thus, a
valid form along with true premises will always have a true conclusion.

For instance,

1. All fruits come from trees.

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 2. Apple is a type of fruit.
3. Therefore, Apple comes from a tree.

The truthiness of conclusion is closely related to premises,

too. Now we bring an invalid form of inference.

1. All M are F
2. B is a F
3. Thus, B is a M

Now let’s see how it is invalid,

1. All mangoes are fruit. (Correct)

2. All Bananas are fruit. (Correct)
3. Therefore, Bananas are mangoes. (Wrong)

A false conclusion may also come out of a valid argument with false premises :

1. All Stars are Bright.

2. LED is Bright.
3. Thus, LED is a Star.

If in case a false conclusion is made through making a valid argument from a

given premises still then an inference remains valid and follows the form of a
correct inference.

A true conclusion from premises can be derived by using a valid argument.

1. All tall people are actors (although wrong)

2. Amitabh Bachhan is tall (right, valid)
3. Thus, Amitabh Bachhan is an actor

(Right) Let us look at the example of

deductive inference:

Usually we read such news in newspaper that “A cricket team from a village in
Uttarakhand surprises by winning game by game. The team even overthrows the
Mumbai team”

Inference: The Village in Uttarakhand is not a village anymore.

Inference is made on the ground of some known facts: The village was remote and
historically had never distinguished itself; the resources need for cricket was
short due to the lack of cricket clubs and a coach for proper training. Large cities
might field good teams due to the greater availability of high quality players and
resources; and teams that can practice longer under the guidance of coach can
reasonably be expected to be better.

5.1 Rule of Inference

A rule of inference can be state as a form of logic where a function takes

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premises and assesses their syntax to return a conclusion. For instance, the rule

𝑝 then 𝑞”, and another in the form “𝑝”, that returns the conclusion “𝑞”. The rule
of inference said to be modus ponens considers two premises, one in the form “If

is valid as far as semantics of classical logic are concerned, in the sense that
conclusion will be true provided premises are true.

Usually, a rule of inference retains truth is a kind of semantic property. It retains

a common place in many-valued logic. But a rule of inference is strictly syntactic
with no requirement to retain any semantic property. Typically, only recurring
rules are significant; those provides a means to verify whether the given
formulation is a conclusion of a given set of formulation according to the rule.
Well known rules of inference in propositional logic comprise modus ponens,
modus tollens, and contraposition. Rules of inferences are used by first order
predicate logic while treating logical quantifiers.

Standard form of rules of inference

In formal logic and other concerned domains, rules of inference are generally
given in the subsequent standard form:

Premise 1  Premise 2  Premise 𝑛  Conclusion

It means that on every occasion during some logical induction the given
premises may achieved, the particular conclusion can be considered as well.

The actual language of expression to explain both of the premises & conclusions
is based on the perspective of the logical induction. For example, one may use
logical formula as

𝐴→𝐵

In prepositional logic, it is said to be modus ponens rule. Rules of inference are

above, the syntactical variables 𝐴 and 𝐵 can assume any element of the
usually expressed as a model using syntactical variables. In the rule mentioned

universe to produce a countless set of inference rules.

Derivations can be expressed as proof method made up of a set of rules linked to

one another to form a proof. Any derivation ends with only one conclusion that is
the statement said to be derived. If in case, the premises are gone unfulfilled
then the derivation is said to be a proof of theoretical statement “if the premises
exists, then the conclusion also exist”.

5.2 Modus ponens

expressed as as "𝐴 implies 𝐵; 𝐴 is declared as true, so therefore 𝐵 should be

Under propositional logic, modus ponens is a rule of inference that can be

true.”

Modus Ponens are among the most frequently used notions in logic and should
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not be interpreted as a law in logic but it’s a tool for the derivation of proofs that
comprises the rule for definition and substitution as well. Though it is allowed to
ignore a conditional statement from the logical derivation or an argument thus it
is occasionally called as rule for detachment.

The conviction in the inference is the acceptance that if the previous statements
are true, then the final conclusion will also true. In other words,

If 𝐴 implies 𝐵 and 𝐴 is true, then 𝐵 is true.

Example 5.1 Let us consider the following

argument “If it is mango, It must be a fruit”

“It is mango.”

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Thus, “It must be a fruit”

Formally, Modus ponens can be specified as:

𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝐴

∴𝐵

It means that whenever there is an implication as 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐴 comes in a line

of proof then in place of 𝐴, 𝐵 can be placed in the later line. 𝐵 will be their only
hint that is taken further in more complex derivation.

It has a close relationship with another logical form of argument, modus tollens.
Both of them have similar but invalid forms that will be discussed later.

5.2.1 Formal Notation

Logical notaion may be used to depict modus ponens rule

𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝐴⊢𝐵

Where, ⊢ is a logical sign means that 𝐵 is a syntactic result of 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐴 in

few logical methods.

((𝐴 → 𝐵)⋀𝐴) → 𝐵

where 𝐴, and 𝐵 are propositions stated in some formal system.

5.3 Modus tollens

Under propositional logic, modus tollens is inference rule and valid argument
form. It is an implementation of the common fact that in case of a statement
which is true, then its contrapositive is also true.

inference from 𝐴
Modus tollens is also well known as law of contraposition, confirms the

implies 𝐵 and the contradictory of 𝐵, to the contradictory

of 𝐴. Formally, modus tollens rule can be expressed as

𝐴 → 𝐵, ¬𝐵
∴ ¬𝐴

where 𝐴 → 𝐵 stands for the statement “ 𝐴 implies 𝐵 ” (and ¬𝐴 → ¬𝐵 is called

the “contrapositive”). ¬𝐵 stands for “it is not the occasion that 𝐵” (or in brief
“not 𝐵”). Then, whenever “𝐴 → 𝐵” and “¬𝐵” each appear by themselves as a
line of a proof, then “¬𝐴” can validly be positioned on a later line.

Modus tollens has close relationship with modus ponens. There are two alike, but
invalid, forms of argument: asserting the consequent and contradicting the

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predecessor.

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5.3.1 Formal notation

In logical notations, modus tollens can be represented as:

𝐴 → 𝐵, ¬𝐵 ⊢ ¬𝐴

Where, ⊢ is a logical sign in the sense that ¬𝐴 is a syntactic result of 𝐴 → 𝐵

and ¬𝐵 in some logical system

((𝐴 → 𝐵)⋀¬𝐵) → ¬𝐴

where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are propositions expressed in some formal system

Example 5.2

“If the smoke sensor detected fire, the fire alarm

will ring” “The fire alarm won’t ring”

Thus, “no smoke was detected by the smoke sensor”

Assuming that the premises are equally true (the fire alarm will ring if it detects
smoke, and does indeed won’t ring), it follows that no smoke has been detected.
This is a valid argument since it is not possible for the inference to be false if the
premises are true. (It is feasible that there may have been the smoke that smoke
sensor did not detected, but that does not nullify the argument; the first premise
is “if the smoke sensor detects smoke.” It means the more important thing is
that whether the sensor detects the smoke irrespective of whether smoke is
present there or not.

5.3.2 Relation to modus ponens

In propositional logic, material implication is a valid rule of replacement that

the antecedent is negated. The rule states that 𝑝 implies 𝑞 is logically equivalent
allows for a conditional statement to be replaced by a disjunction if and only if

to ~𝑝 or 𝑞 and can replace each other in logical proofs.

Each use of modus tollens can be adapted to a use of modus ponens and one
use of substitution to the premise which is a material implication. For example:

If 𝐴, then 𝐵, (premise – material

implication) If not 𝐵, then not 𝐴.

(Derived by Substitution) Not 𝐵.

(premise)

Thus, not 𝐴 (derived by modus ponens)

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Likewise, each use of modus ponens can be converted to use of modus tollens
and substitution.

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5.4 Validity

Logically, an argument is said to be valid if it is in such a form so that almost it

become impossible for an inference to be false having premises true. It is not
always essential that a valid argument needs to be true but if the assertion is
true then it would assure that the conclusion based on that assertion will be true.
It means that an argument schema is valid iff every argument of that logical
structure is valid.

5.4.1 Validity of an argument

Though the logical consequence of the premises is the inference derived from it.
So an argument’s validity is based on the validity of the premises. Hence the
truth value of an argument is the criteria on the basis of which it will be called as
valid while on the other hand the negation of this condition is a contradiction.

Example 5.3 Let us consider the following argument:

All birds have wings.

parrot is a bird.

Then, parrot has wings.

Here truth values of the premises and conclusion are not responsible to make
this argument valid but conclusion needs a logical context and that gives these
two premises. Otherwise the argument would still remain valid where the truth
value of premises and conclusion both are false.

The argument given in example 2.4 is of the same logical form as above in
example 2.3. Difference is that the truth value of premises and conclusion is
false but the argument would be equally valid.

Example 5.4 Let us consider the following argument:

All vegetables are

green. carrot is a

vegetable.

Therefore, Carrot is green.

It doesn’t matter how the universe is, but it is not always possible that
these argument would give true premises concurrently with false conclusion.

Example 5.5 Let us consider the following

argument: All human are immortal.

Sachin is a man.

Therefore, Sachin is

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mortal.

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Here, the conclusion is not drawn from the premises so it contradicts the derived
logic and hence the argument is invalid while in general the conclusion can be
considered as true.

From a standard point of view, whether an argument is valid is a matter of the

argument’s logical form. Numerous techniques are engaged by logicians to
represent an argument’s logical form. A simple example, applied to two of the
above illustrations, is the following:

Let the letters '𝐻', '𝑀', and '𝑆' stand, individually, for the set of men, the set of
mortals, and Sachin. Using these symbols, an argument may be summarized as:

All 𝐻 are 𝑀.

𝑆 is a 𝐻.

Thus, 𝑆 is a 𝑀.

Likewise, another argument becomes:

All 𝐻 are not 𝑀.

𝑆 is a 𝐻.

Thus, 𝑆 is a 𝑀.

An argument can formally called as valid if the conclusion is drawn on the basis
of the premises then no matter whether the premises are true or not. On the
other hand, if in an argument a conclusion is not drawn on the basis of the
premises then no matter the premises could be true but the argument will be
called as invalid.

5.4.2 Validity of Statements

A statement can be called valid, i.e. logical truth, if it is true in all interpretations.

5.5 Predicate Logic

In mathematical logic, predicate logic is common term used to represent the

formal logical systems where it is comprises of the syntactical variables

There are two frequently used quantifiers are the

1. Existential ∃ (“there exists”) quantifiers

2. Universal ∀ (“for all”) quantifiers.

The variables may possibly be any elements in the universe under consideration,
or possibly relations or functions over that universe of discourse. For instance, an
existential quantifier over a function symbol would be inferred as modifier “there
is a function”.

The foundations of predicate logic were given unconventionally by Gottlob Frege

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and Charles Sanders Peirce.

Let us consider the following sentences:

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 1. Mohit is a student.
2. Shridhar is a student.
3. Seema is a student.

If we write the propositions for these three sentences, we will require three
propositions. In the same way if we have a list of hundred students, then it is not
suitable to write hundred propositions because the part ‘is a student’ of the

variable (say 𝑥) in place of the name of the student and keep the remaining part
sentence is repeated in all these sentences. Hence, it is better to assign a

as it is, and define a set 𝑋 of students from where 𝑥 can take its values.

called predicate, and the set 𝑋 is called the universe of discourse for 𝑥. The
The sentence can be written as ‘𝑥 is a student’ in which the part ‘is a student’ is

complete sentence is called predicate on 𝑥. A predicate on 𝑥 is denoted by the

symbols 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and so on, with 𝑥 in braces, that is, 𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥), 𝑅(𝑥), and so
on, respectively.

For example,

𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙

A predicate can be defined without defining its universe of disclosure. In this

case, the variable can take any value from the universal set. A predicate can also
be defined over more than one variable. For example, consider the predicate on
two variables.

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑦

If we replace 𝑥 by 6 and 𝑦 by 3, then it becomes a proposition ‘6 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3’ whose truth value is 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.

5.6 Quantification

Let us first assume the following sentence:

Rajesh is brilliant and Mohit is brilliant and Akansha is brilliant.

If we form a set 𝐴 of three students, then the sentence can be

transcribed as follows: All the students of the set 𝐴 are brilliant.

variable 𝑥 like
For writing a representational form of the sentence, we need a predicate on a

𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡, and the domain of 𝑥 (called universe of discourse) defined

as the set 𝐴, and a symbol for the phrase ‘for all’. The symbol is called
quantifier. Thus, quantifier is a symbol that quantifies the variables. At the time
when we use quantifier before a predicate, the predicate becomes a proposition.

In logic, an idea that states the quantity of subjects in the domain of discourse

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assigned with a symbol and satisfies an open formula is called quantification.

Two fundamental kinds of quantification in predicate logic are:

1. Universal quantification

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 2. Existential quantification

5.6.1 Universal Quantification

discourse. It is denoted by the symbol ∀. The universal quantification of 𝑃(𝑥) is

It is used when a statement is true for all values given in the universe of

the statement

𝑃(𝑥) for all values 𝑥 in the universe of discourse and is denoted by ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥). We
read ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
as ‘for all 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)’ or ‘for every 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)’.

Note that ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true when 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every 𝑥 and is false when there
is any 𝑥 for which 𝑃(𝑥) is not true.

Example 5.6 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the
set {1,2,3,4}. Find the truth value of ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is false.
Solution: As every number in the set is not an even number, the statement

Example 5.7 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 ≠ 5 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1,2,3,4}.
Find the truth value of ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As for every number 𝑥 in the set 𝑥 ≠ 5, the statement ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true.

5.6.2 Existential Quantification

values given in the universe of discourse. It is represented by the symbol ∃. The

The existential quantifier is used on the occasion of a statement is true for some

existential quantification of 𝑃(𝑥) is the statement

There exists some 𝑥 in the universe of discourse such that 𝑃(𝑥) and it is
symbolized by the symbol ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Note that ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true when 𝑃(𝑥) is true for at least one value of 𝑥 in the
universe of discourse and is false when 𝑃(𝑥) is false for every 𝑥 in the universe
of discourse.

Example 5.8 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the
set {1,2,3,4}. Find the truth value of ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As some numbers in the set are even numbers, the statement ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is
true.

Example 5.9 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 > 5 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1,2,3,4}.
Find the truth value of ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As none of the number in the set is greater than 5, the statement ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
is false.

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Problems for Exercise

a. The element 𝑥 is not a member of 𝐴

1. Rephrase the statements given below using set notations

b. The element 𝑏 is a member of 𝐵.

c. 𝑌 is a subset of 𝑍.
d. 𝑋 is not a subset of 𝑍.
e. 𝑆 contain all the elements of 𝑈
f. 𝐻 and 𝐺 contain the same elements.

down the elements of the subsequent sets; assume 𝐼 = {1, 2, 3,

. . . }.
2. Write

𝐵 = {𝑏: 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼, 4 < 𝑥 < 15}

𝐸 = {𝑦: 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, 𝑦 < 20}
a.

𝐴 = {𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼, 5 + 𝑛 = 6}
b.
c.

3. Which of these sets are equal : {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}, {𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦}, {𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥}, {𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑦},
{𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑧}.

4. Distinguish between 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋⊂𝑌

a Venn diagram of sets 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 such that

𝑋 and 𝑌 have elements in common
5. Draw

𝑌 and 𝑍 have elements in common

a.

𝑋 and 𝑍 are disjoint

b.
c.

6. State the De Morgan’s Laws.

7. Prove the Distributive Law: 𝑋 ∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝑍) = (𝑋 ∪ 𝑌) ∩ (𝑋 ∪ 𝑍).

𝑆 = {𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟}

8. State the finite sets among the following:

𝑇 = {𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦}

a.

𝑃 = {𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1}

b.

𝐷 = {𝑑𝑜𝑔𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎}

c.
d.

9. Find the power set 𝑃(𝑋) of 𝑋 = {6, 7, 8, 9}

a. {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘}

10.Determine the size of the power set mentioned below:

b. {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 “𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐼𝐴”}

c. {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 6}

11.Let p be “He is tall” and let q be “He is handsome”. Write each of

that “He is short” means “He is not tall”, i.e., ∼ 𝑝).

the following statements in symbolic form using p and q (Assume

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 a. He is tall and handsome.
b. It is false that he is short or handsome.
c. He is tall but not handsome.
d. He is neither tall nor handsome.
12.Determine the truth value of each of the following statements:
a. 1+1=5 or 2+2=4

13.Find the truth table of the proposition ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞).

b. 2+5=9 or 1+7=8

a. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
14.Find the truth tables of the following:

b. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
15.Prove the associative law : (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
16.Find a principle disjunctive normal form ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ↔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
17.Obtain a principal disjunctive normal form(~𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) → (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑟).
18.Obtain a principle conjunctive normal form of (𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)) ∧∼ (𝑝 ∨
𝑟) ∧ 𝑞)
19.Obtain a PDNF for 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
20.Obtain PDNF of 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟).

21.State the rule of the inference used in the following arguments

a. If it rains, then the schools are closed; it rains. Therefore,
the schools are closed.
b. If it rains, then the schools are closed; the schools are not
closed. Therefore it does not rain.
22.Using modus ponens or modus tollens, make an argument for
each one in the following.
a. If this student is honest, she will not try to cheat when she
takes a test. This student tried to cheat on a test.
Therefore, by modus
b. If it is raining today, I will take
my umbrella. It is raining today.

c. (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) → 𝑐
Therefore, by modus

𝑏
Therefore, by modus
d. I always bring my lunch
on Friday. I will buy my
lunch today.
Therefore, by modus

a. 𝑝 → ~𝑞; 𝑝 ∴
23.Supply the missing statement or reason in the following

b. ~𝑝 → 𝑞; ~𝑝 ∴
c. (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → ~(𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∴
𝑟);
d. (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∧∼ ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∴
𝑟);
e. (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → ~(𝑞 ∧ 𝑞∧𝑟 ∴

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 𝑟);
f. (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∧∼ ∼ (𝑞 ∧∼ ∴
𝑟); 𝑟)
24. Check whether the argument is valid or not
a. If I plant a tree, then I will get dirt under my nails. I didn’t get
dirt under my nails. Therefore, I didn’t plant a tree.
b. If I don’t change my oil regularly, my engine will die. My
engine died. Thus, I didn’t change my oil regularly
c. If I don’t tie my shoes, then I trip. I didn’t tie my shoes. Hence, I
tripped.
d. All racers live dangerously. Arnav is a racer. Therefore,
Arnav lives dangerously
25.Translate the following into symbolic form:
a. Everybody loves him
b. Somebody cried out for help and called the police.

26.State whether the following are true or false, where 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 range
c. Nobody can ignore him.

a. ∀𝑥, ∋ 𝑦. (2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0)
over the integers.

b. ∀𝑥, 𝑥 < 10 ⇒ ∀𝑦, (𝑦 < 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 < 9)

c. ∋ 𝑦. ∋ 𝑧. 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 100
27.Formalize the following (over the real numbers):
a. Negative numbers don’t have square roots
b. Every positive number has exactly two square roots

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