Unit III

Load Curves and Economic Aspects

Syllabus :

Load Curves: load curve – base load station and peak load station - demand factor – maximum
demand – average demand – diversity of load – load factor – diversity factor – significance of high
load factor & diversity factor – plant factor – capacity factor – connected load – load duration curve –
integrated load duration curve – selection of units. (Simple numericals on various factors) Per capita
energy consumption of developed & developing countries.Concept of cogeneration and captive
generation.

3.1 Introduction

 For electrification of a particular area, it is necessary to have the correct idea of load
requirements of that area; also the growth of population as well as the standard of living of
peoples of that area which will affect the forecasting of load requirement.
 Once the forecasting of this load has been done the job is to make a provision of sufficient
amount of power at economical important rate.
 As there are number of important types of power stations namely Thermal, Hydro, Nuclear,
Diesel; we have to choose the power station which provides the power at lower cost, with
reliability and consistently.
 In choosing the type of generation, a number of points have to be considered. Such as kind of
fuel available and its cost, availability of suitable sites for a hydro power stations, transmission
and distribution costs of generated power, and nature of load to be supplied, etc.
 The load on the power system is never constant due to variable demands at different times (hour,
day or month).
 Therefore the nature of load to be supplied affects the choice of plant to a considerable extent.
 It is essential for the power system to maintain the reliability and continuity of power supply at
all times. The use of single generator unit to supply the whole load is neither practical nor
economical.
 Hence a large number of sets are decided to fulfil the load demand.
 However when a large number of generating sets is chosen, the operational problems and
maintenance cost increases. Capital cost is also high for large number of units.
 In this chapter we will study the different load curves and the economic aspect of power plant
and its selection to fit in a particular load curve. Also we will study the factors.
 Affecting the cost of generation and how to select the size and number of generator units.

3.2 Terms Commonly used in System Operation

(a) Connected load (b) Firm power

(c) Cold reserves (d) Hot reserves
(e) Spinning reserves
(a) Connected load :
It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments (in watts or kW) connected to supply
system.
Each consumer has certain equipment in his premises which are connected to power system.
Suppose a consumer has following equipments in his house :
 Two 100 W bulbs.
 Three 60 W tubes.
 Two 80 W fans.
 One 1000 W iron.
 One 1000 W heater.
Hence the connected load is :
(2  100) + (3  60) + (2  80) + (1000) + (1000) = 2540 watts is the connected load of that
consumer.
(b) Firm power :
It is the power intended to be always available (even under emergency conditions).
(c) Cold reserves :
Cold reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is available for service but is not in
operation.
(d) Hot reserves :
Hot reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but is not in service.
(e) Spinning reserves :
Spinning reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is ready to take
the load.

3.3 Curves used in System Operation

3.3.1 Load Curve :

 We know that the load on the power system is not constant but it varies from time to time.

Fig. 3.3.1 : Load curve

 If we consider the load for particular day, then it is observed that the load is maximum, at
evening and is very less during night and afternoon periods.
 In a year, load becomes maximum, during summer and somewhat less in other seasons.
 When variation of the load (in MW) is plotted against the time then the curve obtained is known
as “Load curve”.
 Different load curves can be plotted such as daily load curve, monthly load curve and yearly
load curve.
 Load curves, give the following important information.
i) The daily load curve shows the various load demands during different times.
ii) Area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
iii) The highest point on the daily load curve shows the maximum demand on the station on
that day.
iv) Load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
v) From Load curve operation schedule of the station can be prepared.
 Fig. 3.3.2 : Load curve
 Fig. 3.3.1(a) indicates the exact load demand at every instant.
 The same load curve can be approximated in the rectangular form as shown in Fig. 3.3.1(b).

3.3.2 Load Duration Curve :

 When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes, the
curve thus obtained is called as a load duration curve.
 Load duration curve represents the load Vs time with the ordinates rearranged in magnitude
sequence i.e. the greatest load on the left side, lesser loads towards the right and the least load at
the extreme right.

Fig. 3.3.3 : Load duration curve

 Suppose we consider a daily load duration curve of a system. The abscissa corresponding to any
kW ordinate of this curve will give the number of hours during which that amount of load (MW)
has been on the plant.
 The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable manner.
 The area under the curve gives the total units for the period considered.
Difference between load curve and load duration curve :

Sr. Load Curve Load Duration Curve

No.
1. The load on the power system is not Load duration curve represents the load Vs time with
constant but it varies from time to the ordinates rearranged in magnitude sequence i.e. the
time. greatest load on the left side, lesser loads towards the
right and the least load at the extreme right.
2. If we consider the load for particular Suppose we consider a daily load duration curve of a
 day, then it is observed that the load is system. The abscissa corresponding to any kW
maximum, at evening and is very less ordinate of this curve will give the number of hours
during night and afternoon periods. during which that amount of load (MW) has been on
the plant.
3. The daily load curve shows the The load duration curve gives the data in a more
various load demands during different presentable manner.
times.
4. Load curve helps in selecting the size The area under the curve gives the total units for the
and number of generating units. period considered.
3.3.3 Integrated Duration Curve :
 Integrated load duration curve is obtained from load duration curve.
 Integrated load duration curve shows the total number of units (kWh) generated for the given
demand in kW.
 The ‘y’ axis represents the load demand in kW and the ‘x’ axis represents the units generated
(kWh).
 To understand the concept of integrated load duration curve; consider Fig. 3.3.4(a).

(a) Load duration curve (b) Integrated load duration curve

Fig. 3.3.4
 Consider any load demand say point ‘c’ on load duration curve which corresponds to line cb.
 The area under this section (area ‘cboa’) represents the number of units generated.
 In integrated load duration curve Fig. 3.3.4(b), these units generated (h1) are indicated by point
p1 which corresponds to load demand ‘c’.
 Similarly area under section ‘deoa’ in load curve (Fig. 3.3.4(a)) represents the units generated
corresponding line ‘de’.
 These units generated (h2) are indicated by point p2 which corresponds to load demand‘d’ in
integrated load duration curve.
 3.4 Factors Affecting the Cost of Generation

(a) Connected load :

It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments (in watts or kW) connected to supply
system.
(b) Maximum demand :

 It is the largest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
 As load on the power station varies from time to time, there is certain instant at which
maximum demand occurs on the power system in a given period.
 Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load because all the consumer do
not switch on their connected load to the system at a time.
 Referring to Fig. 3.3.1(a), the maximum demand is
27 MW which occurs at 8.00 p.m.
(c) Demand factor :
 It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load.
Maximum demand
Demand factor = Connected load
 The value of demand factor is usually less than 1.
 Demand factor intimates in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.
(d) Average load :
 The average of loads (kW) occurring the power station in a given period is known as
average load.
No of units (kWh) generated in a day
Average load (Daily) = 24 hours
No of units (kWh) generated in a year
Average load (Yearly) =
365  24
(e) Load factor :
 The ratio of average load to maximum demand during a given period known as load factor.
Average load
Load factor = Maximum demand
Energy generated in a given period
=
(Maximum demand)  (Hours of operation in a given period)
 If the period considered is a day, then the load factor is the daily load factor, if period is
month it is the monthly load factor and similarly for the yearly load factor.
 Load factor is always less than 1.
 Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per unit generated. It is
because higher load factor means lesser maximum demand. The station capacity is selected
such that it meets the maximum demand. If lower maximum demand means lower capacity
of plant which reduces the cost of the plant.
(f) Diversity factor :
 The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power
station is known as diversity factor.
Sum of individual maximum demand
Diversity factor = Maximum demand on power station

 Diversity factor is always less than 1.

 The effect of diversity factor is to reduce the simultaneous maximum demand on the
station for the same individual demands.
 The effect of diversity is reduced capital cost for the station and consequently a lower
overall rate for generation of electricity.
(g) Plant capacity factor :
 It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could be
produced during a given period.
Actual energy produced
Plant capacity factor = Maximum energy that could be produced

Average demand  T
=
Plant capacity  T
Average demand
= Plant capacity
 The plant capacity factor indicates the reserve capacity of the plant. Generally installed
capacity is always greater than maximum demand on the plant.
Thus,
Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand.
(h) Plant use factor :
It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for
which the plant was in operation.
Station output in kWh
Plant use factor =
Plant capacity  Hours of use

Ex. 3.4.1 : A generating station has a connected load of 60 MW and maximum demand of 25 MW.
The units generated being 60 x 106 KWh per annum. Calculate load factor and demand
factor.
Soln. :
Maximum demand 25
(1) Demand factor = Connected load = 60

D. F. = 0.4
Units generated / annum
(2) Average demand = Hours in a year
60  106
= 8760

Average demand = 68 and 49.31 kW.

3.5 Importance of High Load Factor

 The load factor plays a very important role in determining the cost of energy.
(1) Reduces cost per unit generated :
Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per unit generated. It is
because higher load factor means lesser maximum demand. The station capacity is selected such that it
meets the maximum demand. If lower maximum demand means lower capacity of plant which reduces
the cost of the plant.
(2) Reduces variable load problems :
High load factor reduces the variable load problems of the power station.
Higher load factors give less variations in the load demands at various times which avoids the
frequent use of regulating devices installed in stations.

3.6 Solved Problems

Ex. 3.3.1 : A generating station has a connected load of 40 MW and maximum demand of 20 MW.
The units generated being
60  10 per annum. Calculate demand factor and average demand.
6
.
Soln. :
Maximum demand 20
(1) Demand factor = Connected load = 40
D. F. = 0.5
Units generated / annum
(2) Average demand = Hours in a year
60  106
= 8760
Average demand = 68 and 49.31 kW.
Ex. 3.3.2 : A generating station of 100 MW delivers 100 MW for
2 hours, 50 MW for 6 hours and shut down for rest of each day. It is also shut down for
maintenance for 45 days each year. Calculate its energy supplied annually and % annual
load factor.
Soln. :
 Energy supplied for each working day
= (100  2) + (50  6) = 500 MWh.
 Station operates for = 365 – 45 = 320 days in a year
 Energy supplied / year = 500  320 = 160,000 MWh.
 Annual load factor
MWh supplied / annum
=  100
max. demand in MW  working hours
160000
=  100
(100)  (320  24)
A.L.F. = 20.8 %
Ex. 3.3.3 : A consumer has a maximum demand of 700 kW at 70% load factor if the tariff is Rs.200
per kW of maximum demand per month plus 100 paise per kWh. Find overall cost per
kWh.
Soln. :
 Units consumed / year = M. D.  L. F.  Hrs. in a year
= 70  0.7  8760 = 4,29,240 kWh.
Annual charges = Annual M. D. charges + Annual energy charges
= Rs. (200  70) + (1  4,29,240) = Rs. 4,43,240
443240
 Overall cost / kWh = Rs. 429240

= Rs. 1.033 = 103.3 paise.

Ex. 3.3.4 : The maximum demand of a consumer is 25 A at 220 V and his total energy consumption is
9750 kWh. If energy is charged at a rate of 300 paise per kWh for 500 hrs. Use at
maximum demand per month plus 350 paise per unit for all additional units. Estimate
annual bill.
Soln. :
 Assume load factor and p.f. to be unity
220  25  1
 Maximum demand = = 5.5 kW
1000
Units consumed in 500 Hrs. = 5.5  500 = 2750 kWh.
Charges for 2750 kWh = Rs. 3  2750
= Rs. 8250
Remaining units = 9750 – 2750 = 7000 kWh.
Charges for 7000 kWh = Rs. 3.5  7000 = Rs. 24,500.
 Annual bill = (8250 + 24,500)
= Rs. 32,750.

Ex. 3.3.5 : Find out the average load and maximum demand of supply system having following loads.
Type of M.D. Load Diversity
load (k facto factor
W) r
Residential 1000 20 1.2
Commercial 2000 25 1.1
Industrial 10000 80 1.25
Assume overall diversity factor = 1.3 and load
factor = 0.5
Soln. :
 The sum of maximum demands of three loads is
1000 + 2000 + 10,000 = 13,000 kW.
 Maximum demand on supply system
 Sum of individual maximum demand
= System diversity factor
13000
= 1.3
M. D. = 10,000 kW.
Average load
 Load factor = maximum demand
 Average load = L. F.  M. D.
= 0.5  10,000
Average load = 5000 kW.
Ex. 3.3.6 : A generating station has connected load of 50 MW and a maximum demand of 35 MW.
The units generated being
65  10 per annum.
6

Calculate : (1) Demand factor (2) Load factor

Soln. :
Given connected load : 50 MW
Maximum demand : 35 MW
Unit generated / annum : 65  103.
Maximum demand 35
(1) Demand factor = Connected load = 50 = 0.7
Units generated /annum 65  106
(2) Average demand = = 8760
Hours in a year
= 7420 kW.
Average demand 7420
 load factor = Maximum demand =
35  103
Load factor = 0.212

Ex. 3.3.7 : A 200 MW power station delivers 200 MW for 3 hours, 100 MW for 6 hours and shut
down for the rest of each day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 50 days each year.
Calculate its annual load factor.
Soln. :
 Energy supplied for each working day :
= (200  3) + (100  6) = 1200 MWh
 Station operates for = 365 – 50 = 315 days in a year.
 Energy supplied / year = 1200  315 = 378000 MWh.
MWh supplied per annum
Annual load factor =
Maximum demand in MW  working hours
378000
=  100
(200)  (315  24)
Annual load factor = 25 %.
Ex. 3.3.8 : A power supply is having the following loads.
Type of Maximum demand Diversity of Demand
load (KW) group factor
Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.9
Industrial 10,000 1.25 1
If the overall system diversity factor is 1.35, determine :
(1) Maximum demand and
(2) Connected load of each type.
Soln. :
 The sum of maximum demand of three loads is :
1500 + 2000 + 10000 = 13,500 kW
  Maximum demand on supply system
Sum of individual maximum demand
= System diversity factor
13500
= 1.35
Maximum demand = 10,000 kW.
 Each type of load has its own diversity factor among its consumers.
Sum of maximum demands of different domestic consumers
= Maximum domestic demand  diversity factor
= 1500  1.2 = 1800 kW
 Connected domestic load = 1800  0.8
= 2250 kW
Similarly,
 Connected commercial load = 2000  1.1 / 0.9
= 2444 kW
 Connected industrial load = 10000  1.25/1
= 12500 kW.
Ex. 3.3.9 : A residential load of a locality is given below :
Time 0- 5- 6-9 9-18 18- 21-24
hours) 5 6 21
Load (kW) 3 7 20 0 12 8
Draw the load curve and find out the load factor and
energy consumed during 24 hours.
Soln. :
 Fig. P. 3.3.9 : Load curve
 Area under the curve gives the energy generated during 24 hours.
 Total energy consumed during 24 hours –
= ( 3  5) + (7  1) + (20  3) + (12  3) + (8  3)
= 15 + 7 + 60 + 36 +24
E = 142 kW hrs

Energy consumed during 24 hours 142

 Average load = = 24
Hours of a day
Average load = 5.92 kW
Average load 5.92
 Load factor = Maximum demand = 20

Load factor = 0.296

Ex. 3.3.10 : A power station supplies the following loads to the consumers
Time 0-6 6- 10- 12- 16-20 20- 22-
(hours) 10 12 16 22 24
Load (MW) 25 55 60 40 85 75 40
Find (a) The load curve of the plant.
(b) What is the load factor of a stand by equipment of 20 MW capacity if it takes
up all load above 60 MW ?
Soln. :

Fig. P. 3.3.10 : Load curve

(a) Energy generated is given by the area under the curve.
 Energy generated = (25  6) + (55  4) + (60  2) + (40  4)
+ (85  4) + (75  2) + (40  2)
= 150 + 220 + 120 + 160 + 340 + 150 + 80
Energy = 1220 MW-hrs
 Energy consumed during 24 hours
Average load = Hours of a day
1220
= 24

Average load = 50.83 MW

Average load 50.83
Load factor = Peak load = 85
Load factor = 0.598
(b) If the load above 60 MW is supplied by a stand by unit of
20 MW capacity, energy generated is –
= (25  4) + (15  2)
= 100 + 30
Energy = 130 MW hrs
 Time during which stand by unit remains in operation = 6 hours
Energy consumed 130
Average load = =
Time in Hours 6
Average load = 21.67
Average load 21.67
Load factor = Peak load = 25
Load factor = 0.867
Ex. 3.3.11 :The peak load on a power station is 40 MW. The loads having maximum demands of 30
MW, 20 MW, 5 MW and 8 MW are connected to the power station. The capacity of the
power station is 40 MW and annual load factor is
50 % find.
(a) Average load on power station
(b) Energy supplied per year
(c) Demand factor
(d) Diversity factor.
Soln. :
Average load
Load factor =Peak load
 Average load = L.F  Peak load
= 0.5  40
Average load = 20 MW
Energy supplied per year :
= Average load  8760 hrs
= 20  103  8760

Energy = 175.2  106 kW-Hrs

Maximum demand
Demand factor = Connected load
40
= 30 + 20 + 5 + 8

Demand factor = 0.635

Sum of individual maximum demand
Diversity factor = Simultaneous maximum demand
30 + 20 + 5 + 8
= 40
Diversity factor = 1.575

Ex. 3.3.12 :A thermal power plant consists of two 80 MW units each running for 8000 hours and 40
MW unit running for
2000 hours per year. The energy produced by the plant is
876  106 kWh per year. Determine plant load factor and plant use factor. Consider
maximum demand is equal to plant capacity.
Soln. :
Plant capacity = 80 + 80 + 40
Plant capacity = 200 MW = Maximum demand
Energy produced per year
Average load = 8760
876  106
8760 = 10  10 kW
5
=

Average load = 100 MW

Average load 100
Load factor = Maximum demand = 200

Load factor = 0.5

Actual energy produced
Plant use factor = (Maximum possible energy which can be produced by the plant)

 Maximum possible energy which can be produced by the plant

= (2  80  8000) + (1  40  2000)
 = 1360  106 kWh
876  106
 Plant use factor =
1360  106
Plant use factor = 0.644

Ex. 3.3.13 :An yearly load duration curve of a gas turbine power plant is a straight line from 48,000
kW to 5000 kW. The load is taken by a power plant which consists of two units of 20,000
kW each and one unit of 10,000 kW. Determine
(a) Load factor and (b) Capacity factor of the plant.
Soln. :

Fig. P. 3.3.13 : Load curve

 Energy generated per year by the plant = Area under the load curve.
1
= (8760  5000) + 2  8760  (48000 – 5000)

= 8760 [5000 + 21500] = 8760  26500kWh/year

Energy generated per year 8760  26500
Average load = =
Hours of a year 8760
Average load = 26500 kW
Average load
Load factor = Maximum demand

26500
= 48000

Load factor = 0.552

Energy generated per year
Capacity factor =
Plant capacity  8760
 Plant capacity = 20,000  2 + 10,000 = 50,000 kW
26,500  8760
Capacity factor =
50,000  8760
Capacity factor = 0.53

Ex. 3.3.14 :The daily demands of three consumers are given below :
Time Consumer Consumer Consumer 3
1 2
12 M.N. to 8 No load 400 W No load
A.M.
 8 A.M. to 2 P.M. 600 W No load 400 W
2 P.M. to 4 P.M. 300 W 1200 W 800 W
4 P.M. to 10 800 W No load No Load
P.M.
10 P.M. to M.N. No load 200 W 200 W
Plot the load curve and find (i) Maximum demand of individual consumer (ii) Load
factor of individual consumer (iii) Diversity factor and (iv) Load factor of the station.
Soln. :
1. Maximum demand of consumer 1 = 800 W
Maximum demand of consumer 2 = 1200 W
Maximum demand of consumer 3 = 800 W
Energy consumed per day
2. Load factor of consumer 1=
Maximum demand  Hrs in a day
(600  6) + (300  2) + (800  6)
=
800  24
Load factor1 = 0.468
Load factor of consumer 2
(400  8) + (1200  2) + (200  2)
=
1200  24
Load factor2 = 0.208
L.f. of consumer 3
(400  6) + (800  2) + (200  2)
=
800  24
Load factor3 = 0.23

Fig. P. 3.3.14 : Load curve

3. The simultaneous maximum demand on the station is
= 300 + 1200 + 800
= 2300 W
and it occurs from 2 PM to 4 PM
 Sum of individaual M.D.
 Diversity factor = Simultaneous M.D. on the station

800 + 1200 + 800

= 2300
Diversity factor = 1.217
Total energy consumed per day
4. Station load factor =
Simultaneous M.D.  24
(400  10) + (1000  6) + (2300  2) + (800  6)
=
2300  24
19400
= 55200

Station L.F. = 0.351

Ex. 3.3.15 : A gas turbine power station has the following

daily load cycle.
Time in hours 4- 8-12 12- 16- 20-24 24-
8 1 2 4
6 0
Load in MW 25 45 65 25 55 25
Plot the load curve and load duration curve. Also
calculate the energy generated per day.

Soln. :
 Fig. P. 3.3.15(a) shows the load curve and Fig. P. 3.3.15(b) shows the load duration curve.
 Load duration curve is drawn by arranging the load in the order of descending magnitudes.
 Fig. P. 3.3.15(a) : Load curve

Fig. P. 3.3.15(b) : Load duration curve

Units generated per day = Area under load duration curve

= (65  4) + (55  4) + (45  4) + (25  12)
= 260 + 220 + 180 + 300
Units generated = 960 kWh

Ex. 3.3.16 :A generating station has connected load of 40 MW and M.D. of 20 MW. The units
generated per year is
60 10 kWH. Calculate
6

(i) Demand factor (ii) Average demand

Soln. :
A generating station has connected load of 40 MW and M.D. of 20 MW. The units generated per
year is 60 106 kWH. Calculate.
MD 20
(i) Demand factor = connected load = 40 = 0.5

No. of units generated in a year

(ii) Average demand =
365  24
60  106
= = 6849.31 kWh
365  14
Ex. 3.3.17 :A generating station has a connected load of 43kW and M.D. of 20MW. The energy
6
generated being 61.5 x 10 kWH per year. Calculate demand factor and yearly load
factor. .
Soln. :
Given : Connected load : 43 kW
Maximum demand : 20 MW
Energy generated = 61.5  106 kWH
Maximum demand
connected load = 2.15  10
–3
Demand factor =

Average load 61.5  103

Load factor = Maximum demand =
20  8760
L.F. = 0.35

Ex. 3.3.18 :A diesel generating station supply following loads to various consumers.
(i) Industrial consumers = 1500kW
(ii) Commercial consumers = 750kW
(iii)Domestic consumers = 100kW
(iv) Domestic light = 450kW
5
If the M.D. on station is 2500kW and number of units generated per year are 45 x 10 kWH,
calculate load factor, diversity factor, demand factor.
.
Soln. :
Average load
1) Load factor = Maximum demand

No. of units generated

Average load =
365  24
45  105
= = 513.7 kW
365  24
Maximum demand = 2500 kW
513.7
 Load factor = 2500 = 0.205

Sum of individual M.D.

2) Diversity factor = Maximum demand
1500 + 750 + 100 + 450 2800
= = 2500
450
= 1.12
Maximum demand
3) Demand factor = connected load
2500 2500
= 1500 + 750 + 100 + 450 = 2800

D.f. = 0.89
Ex.3.3.19 : The maximum demand of a power plant is 80 MW. The capacity factor is 0.5 and
utilization factor is 0.8. Find :
(i) Load factor
(ii) Plant capacity
(iii) Reserve capacity
(iv) Annual energy production.
Soln. :
Given :
Maximum demand = 80 MW
Capacity factor = 0.5
Utilization factor = 0.8 = Plant use factor
Actual energy produced per year
Utilization factor = Max energy per year
Actual energy produced per year
0.8 =
80  106  8760
 Actual energy produced = 5.60  1011 Wh
 Annual energy production = 5.60  1011 Wh …Ans.
Average load
Load factor = Maximum demand

Energy produced per year

Average load = 8760
5.60  1011
= = 64 MW
8760
64
Load factor = 80 = 0.8 …Ans.

Energy produced per year

Capacity factor =
Plant capacity  8760
5.60  1011
 Plant capacity = = 127.85 MW
0.5  8760
Plant capacity = 127.85 MW …Ans.
Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand
= 127.85 – 80
 Reserve capacity = 47.85 MW. …Ans.

Ex.3.3.20 : A consumer has the following connected loads :

10 lamps of 60 Watt each and 2 heaters of 1000 Watt each. His maximum demand is 1500
Watt. On the average he uses 8 lamps, 5 hours a day and each heater for 3 hours of a day.
Find his average load, monthly energy consumption and load factor. .
Soln. : Maximum demand = 1500 W
Total energy consumption for each day = (8  60  5) + (2  10003)
= 2400 + 6000 = 8400 Whr
Connected load = (10  60) + (2  1000)
= 600 + 2000 = 2600 W
Energy consumed during 24 hours
Average load = Hours of a day
 8400
= 24
 Average load = 350 W …Ans.
350
Load factor = 1500 = 0.233 …Ans.

Monthly energy consumption = 8400  720

= 6048 kW hrs. …Ans.

Ex. 3.3.21 : A power station has a maximum demand of 10 MW. The annual load factor is 60 % and
plant capacity factor is 50%. Determine the reserve capacity of plant.

Soln. :
Given : M. D. = 10 MW, A.L.F. = 60 %,
Plant capacity factor = 50%
 Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – M.D.
Average Load
A.L.F. = M.D.
Average Load = A.L.F.  M.D. = 0.6  10 = 6 MW
Average demand
Plant capacity factor =
Plant capacity
Average demand 6
 Plant capacity = = 0.5 = 12 MW
P.C.F.
Reserve capacity = 12 – 10 = 2 MW.

Ex. 3.3.22 :A generating station has the following daily load cycle :
Time 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24
(Hours
)
Load 40 50 60 50 70 40
(MW)
Draw the load curve and find:
 (i) maximum demand
(ii) units generated per day.
(iii) average load
(iv) load factor.
Soln. :
(i) Maximum demand = 70 Mw
(ii) Units generated = Area under curve
= (40  6) + (4  50) + (2  60) + (4  50)
+ (4  70) + (4  40)
= 1200 Mwh
Energy generated in 24 hrs 1200
(iii) Average load = = 24
hours of day
= 50 Mw
Arg. generated
(iv) Load factor = peak load
50
= 70 = 0.714

Ex. 3.3.23 :A power station has a maximum demand of 15000 kW. The annual load factor is 50% and
plant capacity factor is 40%. Determine the reserve capacity of the plant.

Soln. :
Given : MD = 15000 kw, ALF = 50% = 0.5,
Capacity factor = 0.4
Avg. load
ALF = MD
 Avg. load = ALF  MD = 0.5  15000
= 7500 Mw
 Energy produced 1 year = Avg. load  8760
= 7500  8760 = 65.7  106 wh
Energy produced 1 year
 Plant capacity =
capcity factor  8760
65.7  106
=
0.4  8760
= 18750 Mw.
 Reserve cap. = plant cap – MD = 18750 – 15000
= 3750 Mw
Ex. 3.3.24 :The maximum demand of a power plant is 100 MW. The capacity factor is 0.6 and
utilisation factor is 0.81. Find.
 (i) Load factor (ii) Plant capacity
(iii) Reserve capacity (iv) Annual energy production
Soln. :
Given :
MD = 100 Mw,
Capacity factor = 0.6,
Utilization factor = 0.81
Actual energy produced 1 year
U.F. = Max. energy 1 year
Actual energy produced 1 year
 0.81. =
100  106  8760
 Actual energy produced = Annual energy production
= 7.095  10 wh
Avg. load
Load factor = and
MD
Enegy produced 1 year
Avg. load = 8760
7.095  10 wh
= 8760
= 81 Mw
81
 L.F. = 100 = 0.81

Energy produced per year

And Capacity factor =
plant capacity  8760
7.95  10
 Plant capacity = = 134.98 Mw
0.6  8760
 Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – MD
= 134.98 – 100
= 34.98 Mw

3.7 Choice of Size and Number of Generator Units

 From the load curve it is observed that the load on the power station is never constant. It varies
time to time.
 The peak load occurs mostly in the evening and is for only a short duration.
 After getting the knowledge of requirement of load for a day, then next duty is to arrange the
alternator to fulfil this demand.
 There are two methods to fulfil load demand viz :
1. Select a single unit to fulfill the load requirement including peak load.
2. Select the variable number of units so that they fit the load curve as closely as possible.
 According to the first method, i.e. selecting a single unit having a capacity equal to the
maximum demand on the system, we get the advantage of reduction in capital investment as only
single unit is required. But this method has following drawbacks.
1. Less efficiency of generator :
The generators are designed to operates for better efficiency at a near to its full load capacity.
But there is considerable period on the power system in which load requirement is not even, 50
percent that of maximum demand. Therefore generating set may be running mostly under half the
capacity. Hence it doesn’t give the maximum efficiency.
2. It is also uneconomical to run the set under low load condition as fuel consumption would be
more.
3. Less reliability :
If it is a individual plant then to increase reliability and continuity of supply, another set of same
capacity must be installed as a reserve capacity. Thus the second unit will be connected to supply the
load when first is out of service, due to maintenance schedule it is under repair. This increase the
capital cost.
Therefore the second choice i.e. deciding the size and number of generator units to fit the load
curve as closely as possible. This helps to operate each unit at its runs almost at full load or at a load
where it gives maximum efficiency.
The major advantages of these methods are that the reserve capacity required is less, (i.e. equal
to capacity of a unit only). This helps in better plant capacity factor and plant use factor.
Also the reliability and continuity of supply increases as only a single unit is taken out for
maintenance at a time and the stand by unit can be put in service immediately. Consider the following
load curve to get this concept more clearly –
Observe the Fig. 3.7.1, if we select the single unit to fulfill all the requirement of a day, then the
size of units will be 350 MW or 400 MW (considering future expansion).

Fig. 3.7.1 : Load curve

But this unit operates near to its full load only for a period from 6 PM to 10 PM and for rest of
the day it operates at low load. Hence all day efficiency of the units is less.
It the unit fails to supply due to maintenance or repair, then there will be total blackout for the
day. Therefore to avoid another unit of same size has to be kept as stand by unit which increases the
installation cost of plant.
It you observe the Fig. 3.7.2, then total plant capacity it divided into three generating units.
 Out of that unit (1) is kept on for whole the time of a day.
Unit (2) is switched on from 6 AM to 12 noon and 3 PM to
12 mid night.
Unit (3) is switched on only for the period of 6 PM to 11 PM
Thus by selecting the proper number and size of units, the generating units can be made to
operate near maximum efficiency.
Capacity of a stand by unit is less as compared to that of first case.
 Fig. 3.7.2 : Selection of number of units
This results in reduction in over all cost of generation of electrical energy. Care should be taken
to select the large number of units having smaller capacity to in order to fit the load curve very
accurately, should be avoided.
This is because of large number of units increase the cost per kW investment.

3.8 Difficulties in Selecting Number of Units

 Number of unit increases the floor area required and hence the building cost.
 Maintenance cost increases.
 More sets involve more starting, stopping and parallel operations. Hence handling of equipment
increases.
 Capital investment is more because of more number of units.
 3.9 Solved Examples

Ex. 3.9.1 : A generating station has a maximum demand of 10,000kW and the daily load on the station
is as follows :
11 PM to 6 AM – 2000 kW
6 AM to 8 AM – 3500 kW
8 AM to 12 NOON – 8000 kW
12 NOON to 1 PM – 3000 kW
1 PM to 5 PM – 7500 kW
5 PM to 7 PM – 8500 kW
7 PM to 9 PM – 10000 kW
9 PM to 11 PM – 4500 kW
Choose the size avoid number of generator units. What reserve plant would be necessary.
Draw the load curve.
Soln. :
 From the nature of load curve three generating sets of capacity 5000 kW, 3000 kW and 3000
kW will be sufficient.

Fig. P. 3.9.1 : Load curve

 Reserve capacity = largest size of unit in the station
= 5000 kW
Operating schedule (on time of units)
Time Units
2000 kW 3000 kW 5000 kW
11 PM to 6 AM ∙
6 AM to 8 AM ∙ ∙
8 AM to 12 NOON ∙ ∙
12 NOON to 1 PM ∙
1 PM to 5 PM ∙ ∙
5 PM to 7 PM ∙ ∙ ∙
7 PM to 9 PM ∙ ∙ ∙
 9 PM to 11 PM ∙
Ex 3.9.2 : A generating station has the following daily load cycle :
Time (in 0-6 6- 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24
hrs) 10
Load (in 50 70 90 75 100 40
MW)

Draw a load duration curve and find out its load factor.
(4 Marks)
Soln. :

Fig. P. 3.9.2 : Load curve

Ex. 3.9.3 : A power station has following load cycle.

Time (Hrs) : 24-6 6-8 8-12 12-16 16-20 20-24
Load (mw) : 20 20 40 60 20 50
Plot load curve and load duration curve.
Soln. :

Fig. P. 3.9.3 (a)

 (b)
Fig. P. 3.9.3
Ex. 3.9.4 : A power station has the following daily load cycle.
Plot
the load curve and load duration curve. Also
calculate the energy generated per day.
Time 6-8 8- 12-16 16-20 20- 24-6
(hrs) 12 24
Load 20 40 60 20 50 20
(MW)

Soln. :

Fig. P.3.9.4(a) : Load curve

Fig. P.3.9.4(b) : Load duration curve

Units generated per day= Area under load duration curve
= (60  4) + (50  4) + (40  4) + (2012)
= 240 + 200 + 160 + 240
Units generated= 840 kWh